Introduction

The South African Government has three overriding priorities:

• the eradication of poverty;
• the sustainable development of its economy; and
• the social development of its people.

These priorities, together with the national environmental policy presently being formulated, provide the context within which consideration will be given to achieving the three objectives of the Convention on Biological Diversity:

• the conservation of biological diversity;
• the sustainable use of biological resources; and
• the fair and equitable sharing of benefits arising from the use of genetic resources.

In addition to fulfilling these objectives, Government commits itself to a biodiversity policy and strategy that will promote the reconstruction and development of South Africa through:

• ensuring that the essential ecosystem services and biological resources required to meet basic human needs are protected and maintained;
• not restricting economic development unnecessarily, and ensuring that such development is sustainable;
• enhancing the provision of jobs related to the conservation of biodiversity and sustainable use of biological resources;
• ensuring that opportunities derived from the conservation of biodiversity and sustainable use of biological resources favour the poor;
• enhancing the development of human resources necessary to conserve biodiversity and use biological resources sustainably; and
• increasing participation in the institutions of civil society engaged in conserving and using biodiversity.

GOAL 1:
CONSERVE THE DIVERSITY OF LANDSCAPES, ECOSYSTEMS, HABITATS, COMMUNITIES, POPULATIONS, SPECIES, AND GENES IN SOUTH AFRICA

This section describes South Africa's plans for meeting a key obligation of the Convention - the conservation of biological diversity.

The term conservation has in the past been used broadly to include protection as well as use, maintenance, restoration and enhancement of the natural environment However, the Convention on Biological Diversity uses conservation in a different way in that it refers both to the "conservation of biological diversity", and the "sustainable use of its components". This reflects the desire of developing countries to underscore the importance of sustainable use. For the purposes of this policy, the language of the Convention has been used, and a separate section, described in Goal 2, articulates a policy and strategy specifically concerning the sustainable use of biological resources, and avoiding or minimising adverse impacts on biodiversity.

This section (Goal 1), refers to those aspects of the policy concerning the conservation of biodiversity, both inside and outside of protected areas. It includes measures required to protect, maintain, rehabilitate, restore, and enhance biodiversity and should be read in conjunction with Goal 2.

South Africa's approach to conserving its remarkable diversity of landscapes, ecosystems, habitats, communities, populations, species and genes in the country, has eight main components:

1. Identifying important components of biodiversity and threatening processes;
2. Maintaining and strengthening existing arrangements to conserve South Africa's indigenous biodiversity, both in and out of protected areas;
3. Establishing and managing efficiently a representative and effective system of protected areas;
4. Promoting environmentally sound and sustainable development in areas adjacent to or within protected areas;
5. Restoring and rehabilitating degraded ecosystems, and strengthening and further developing species recovery plans where appropriate;
6. Controlling, eradicating and preventing the introduction of harmful alien species which threaten biodiversity;
7. Regulating the transfer, handling, use and release of genetically modified organisms; and
8. Strengthening measures for the conservation of biological diversity outside of natural habitats (ex-situ conservation).

In pursuing this approach, Government recognises:

• that biological diversity is best conserved in the wild (in-situ), through the conservation and restoration of ecosystems and natural habitats, and the maintenance and recovery of viable populations of species in their natural surroundings;
• that ex-situ measures will be implemented primarily for the purpose of complementing in-situ measures; and
• that an integrative approach will be the primary framework for action to address threats to biological diversity, and to establish priorities for its conservation. This means that conservation efforts will focus not only upon relatively "natural" landscapes, but will include areas modified by human activities, and will seek to enhance the contribution which biodiversity makes to human welfare.

1.1. IDENTIFICATION

See also: Objective 4.2 and Sections 4.2.1 (Research), 4.2.2 (Inventories), 4.2.3 (Monitoring and Evaluation), and 4.2.4 (Data and Information).

Policy objective 1.1.

Identify important components of biodiversity and threatening processes.

Policy and Strategy

One of the most fundamental steps towards achieving the goals articulated in this policy requires the identification of important components of biodiversity, and threatening processes. There already exists considerable knowledge in South Africa concerning aspects of the country's biodiversity, but this information needs to be gathered, ordered, and strategically used. Information also exists regarding processes or activities that have adverse impacts on biodiversity, but in many instances this is patchy, inconclusive, and not tailored towards facilitating effective management

To achieve the described objective, Government will take a systematic approach towards the identification of important components of biodiversity and threatening processes, and will, through undertaking a survey of existing knowledge, focus upon addressing gaps in knowledge whilst continuing to support activities relevant to achieving the objective.

In particular, Government, in collaboration with relevant interested and affected parties, undertakes to:

1. Identify, using biological, social and economic criteria, components of biodiversity important for its conservation and sustainable use. These components will include:
   • Ecosystems and habitats that contain high diversity; that contain large numbers of endemic or threatened species; that are relatively "pristine"; that are important nursery or spawning areas; that are under particular threat; that are important for endangered or migratory species; that adjoin conserved ecosystems and habitats; that are of social, economic, cultural or scientific importance; or that are unique, representative of or associated with key evolutionary, biological or other life-supporting processes;
   • Species and communities that are rare or threatened; that are of medicinal agricultural, or other economic value, that are wild relatives of domesticated or cultivated species; that are directly used for subsistence purposes (e.g. fuelwood, building materials); that have social, scientific or cultural importance; or that are important for research into the conservation and sustainable use of biodiversity, such as indicator species; and
   • Described genomes and genes of social, scientific or economic importance.
2. (a) Identify processes or activities that have or are likely to have significant adverse impacts on terrestrial, aquatic, and marine and coastal biodiversity;
   (b) Monitor the effects of these processes and activities, in conjunction with the approaches described in Objective 4.2 (Section 4.2.3); and
   (c) Undertake the research necessary to improve understanding of the consequences of threatening processes or activities on ecological functions and processes, and other components of terrestrial, aquatic, and marine and coastal biodiversity.
3. Develop a mechanism to manage and collate this information, to place it in the public domain, and to ensure that decisions taken upon the best applicable knowledge available (See Objective 4.2, Section 4.2.4).

1.2. BIODIVERSITY CONSERVATION

Policy objective 1.2.

Maintain and strengthen existing arrangements to conserve South Africa's indigenous biodiversity, both inside and outside of protected areas.

Policy and Strategy

South Africa has a substantial body of law to conserve biodiversity, especially within protected areas and for several plant and vertebrate species. However, past approaches to biodiversity conservation have not given adequate attention to the conservation of landscapes and ecosystems outside of protected areas, and have neglected to consider lesser known groups such as invertebrates, fungi, and microorganisms.

Through this policy and the introduction of appropriate measures, Government intends to adopt a more holistic and coordinated approach towards the conservation of biodiversity.

The difficulties encountered in enforcing conservation law in South Africa are a matter of great concern. Government supports the coordinated development of a law enforcement strategy, effective deterrents, and the strengthening of required capacity, but will balance this with the provision of incentives to encourage adherence to the law.

To achieve the objective, Government, in collaboration with interested and affected parties, will:

3. (a) Conserve components of biodiversity identified by Objective 1.1 through a variety of mechanisms such as legislation, planning controls, guidelines, and protected area designations, giving priority to components of biodiversity requiring urgent protective measures;

   (b) Consolidate, coordinate and improve existing legislation and regulations wherever possible and appropriate in order to eliminate duplication, and to avoid conflicting interpretations and implementation.

   (c) Introduce legal measures (see Chapter 4) and incentives (see Objective 5.2) to conserve important ecosystems, habitats, and landscapes outside of protected areas, including rangelands and their associated vegetation and indigenous wildlife resources;

   (d) Promote an ecological management approach to planning, whereby conservation is proactively incorporated into land-use plans as a specific land use (see also Objective 2.3); and

   (e) Facilitate the development of appropriate legislation to achieve uniform legal coverage for the protection of threatened species and the regulation of trade of all CITES-listed species, in addition to threatened species listed nationally and provincially.

4. (a) Strengthen existing support for research on the improved understanding of the structure, function and composition of South Africa's terrestrial, aquatic, and marine and coastal ecosystems (see also Objective 4.2); and

   (b) Improve knowledge of and take appropriate action to conserve poorly known groups such as invertebrates, fungi and microorganisms.

5. Promote and support measures to manage conflict arising from the conservation and use of biological resources.

1.3. PROTECTED AREAS

Policy objective 1.3.

Establish and manage efficiently a representative and effective system of protected areas.

Protected Areas in South Africa

A "protected area", as defined by the Convention is "a geographically defined area which is designated or regulated and managed to achieve specific conservation objectives". Within this definition, the purposes for which protected areas are managed vary considerably, and different classification systems apply in different countries. South Africa presently contains 21 types of protected areas which can be grouped under six internationally recognised management categories (see Table 1). These areas are administered by many different bodies, including the National Parks Board; the Department of Water Affairs and Forestry; the Department of Environmental Affairs and Tourism; the South African National Defence Force; the National Botanical Institute; provincial conservation agencies; numerous local authorities; and an assortment of private and public landowners who subscribe to various conservation schemes. Ten Acts of Parliament and 13 provincial Ordinances and Acts control protected areas in South Africa (see Table II).

Terrestrial Protected Areas

South Africa's system of terrestrial protected areas is well developed, and it is in such areas that biodiversity conservation has been focused. The 422 formally protected areas constitute some 6% of the land surface area, and although the extent to which viable populations are conserved in such areas is not known, about 74% of plant, 92% of amphibian and reptile, 97% of bird, and 93% of mammal species of South Africa are estimated to be represented in the present protected area system. However, this does not imply the conservation of the genetic diversity within these species. Moreover, there are many gaps, and the existing system does not adequately protect the lowland fynbos, succulent karoo, Nama karoo, highveld grassland, and thicket biomes of South Africa (see Figure 3). Furthermore, many of the existing protected areas are small, often isolated from one another, and separated by large areas of mostly transformed land. Aggravating this situation is the fact that protected areas have been managed as islands of biodiversity rather than as part of a holistic land-use policy. Of concern is the fact that the existing system has arisen through a largely ad hoc process, rather than being part of a deliberate conservation strategy.

Wetlands

Wetland conservation is extremely poor in South Africa and the majority of wetlands fall outside of protected areas. Exceptions to this include the 15 Ramsar Sites in the country, which are recognised in terms of the Convention on Wetlands of International Importance especially as Waterfowl Habitat (Ramsar Convention) and protected through various laws. These total some 488,859 hectares.

Marine Protected Areas

Several marine protected areas are located along South Africa's extensive coastline, representing most marine biogeographic regions, and including two of the largest "no-take" reserves in the world. However, as is the case for terrestrial protected areas, there has been no overall planned development of marine reserves, a large number being either poorly positioned or inadequately policed. Furthermore, existing marine protected areas do not protect the full range of coastal and marine habitats, such as sandy beaches, estuaries, dunes, and different types of rocky shore.

Figure 3: Conservation of South African Biomes⁵

Biome	Number of vegetation types	Proportion of South Africa	Proportion conserved in South Africa
Forest	3	0,59%	17,90%
Fynbos
Fynbos	5	3,39%	20,25%
Renosterveld	5	2,90%	1,67%
Grassland	15	24,46%	2,52%
Nama-Karoo	6	24,41%	0,57%
Succulent	4	6,77%	2,82%
Karoo
Savanna	25	34,24%	10,15%
Thicket	5	3,44%	4,5%

Policy and Strategy

Government recognises that South Africa's protected area system is an asset of unsurpassed value, which in addition to conserving biodiversity generates substantial economic benefits through tourism. Of concern is the fact that neither terrestrial nor marine protected areas in South Africa form part of a planned network. Furthermore, the management of such areas is poorly coordinated between the range of responsible authorities, resulting in variable and often conflicting policies being applied. The need to strengthen and rationalise this system, and so establish an effective, efficient, and representative protected area system is considered by Government to be an issue of primary importance. Several steps have been taken in this regard, notably the establishment of a working group under the Sub-Committee on Biodiversity of the Committee for Environmental Coordination, to coordinate conservation efforts between national and provincial conservaffon agencies, and the establishment of a Marine Reserve Task Group, under the auspices of the South African Network for Coastal and Oceanographic Research (SANCOR), to develop a revised policy on marine protected areas.

Government will build on these initiatives and, in collaboration with interested and affected parties, will:

1. Establish a national cooperative programme to strengthen efforts to identify terrestrial, aquatic, and marine and coastal areas that support landscapes, ecosystems, habitats, populations, and species which contribute or could contribute to South Africa's system of representative protected areas. This will take into consideration the categories identified by Objective 1.1, the desirability of achieving at least 10% representation of each habitat and ecosystem type within each biome, and the principle of complementarily, meaning the extent to which components of biodiversity are represented in other areas. Government will involve all protected area agencies and all those with the necessary expertise in this initiative.
2. Develop a comprehensive plan of action to strengthen South Africa's protected area system through a variety of mechanisms such as the purchasing of new land, contractual agreements, land exchanges, the rationalisation of existing protected areas and state land, and the streamlining of legislation. In so doing, it will give recognition to the need to accommodate a diversity of categories of protection, ranging from strict preservation through to controlled resource harvesting and extraction. The plan will take into account the need for diverse, but coordinated and appropriate levels of control - from national through to provincial and local level. Concomitant with these actions will be the development of management plans for all protected areas, including an evaluation of existing boundaries and management arrangements. Funding will be sought from various sources (see Chapter 4) to ensure that these actions receive priority attention.
3. Ensure the involvement of local communities and other interested and affected parties in decisions concerning the designation of new protected areas, the adjustment of protected area boundaries, and the development and implementation of management plans. Such involvement is crucial to the development of an effective and integrated protected area system.
4. Encourage private landowners to continue to participate in voluntary conservation schemes such as conservancies, private nature reserves and the South African Natural Heritage Programme, and in co-operative management partnerships such as biosphere reserves and contractual parks.

Category	Name	Management objective	South African legal or other equivalent category7
Category la	Scientific Reserves	Managed mainly for scientific research and monitoring	- Special nature reserves - Wilderness areas
Category 1b	Wilderness Area	Managed mainly for wilderness protection, subsistence, and recreation	- Special nature reserves - Wilderness areas
Category II	National Parks and Equivalent Reserves	Managed mainly for ecosystem protection and recreation	- National parks - Provincial parks and nature reserves - Indigenous state forests
Category III	Natural Monuments and Areas of Cultural Significance	Managed maily for conservation of specific natural or cultural features	- Natural monuments - Monuments - Botanical gardens - Zoological gardens - Natural heritage sites - Sites of conservation significance
Category IV	Habitat and Wildlife Management Areas	Managed mainly for conservation through management intervention	- Provincial, local, and private nature reserves - Conservancies
Category V	Protected Land and Seascapes	Managed mainly for land and seascape conservation and recreation	- Protected natural environments - Natural resource areas - Scenic landscapes - Urban landscapes
Category VI	Managed Resource Protected Area	Managed mainly for the sustainable use of natural ecosystems	- Mountain catchment areas

Table 2: The Management of Protected Areas in South Africa⁸

Type of protected	Legislation	Administration
National park	National Parks Act, No. 57 of 1976	National Parks Board
Lake area	Lake Areas Development Act, No. 39 of 1975	National Parks Board
Mountain catchment area	Mountain Catchment Areas Act, No. 63 of 1970	Assigned to provinces
Protected natural environment	Environment Conservation Act, No. 73 of 1989	Assigned to provinces
Special nature reserve	Environment Conservation Act, No. 73 of 1989	Assigned to provinces
Limited development area	Environment Conservation Act, No. 73 of 1989	Delegated to local authority/government institution
National botanical garden	Forest Amendment Act, 1991	National Botanical Institute
State forest	Forest Act, No. 122 of 1984	DWAF: delegated to provinces
Forest nature reserve and wilderness area	Forest Act, No. 122 of 1984	DWAF: delegated to provinces
National monument	National Monuments Act, No. 28 of 1969	National Monuments Council and provinces
Conservation area	National Monuments Act, No. 28 of 1969	National Monuments Council and provinces
Defence area	Defence Act, No. 44 of 1957	South African National Defence Force
Marine reserve	Sea Fishery Act, No. 12 of 1988	DEAT: Directorate of Sea Fisheries; provinces in respect of coastal zone and specified resources
Restricted area	Sea Fishery Act, No. 12 of 1988	DEAT: Directorate of Sea Fisheries; provinces in respect of coastal zone and specified resources
Most South African islands	Sea Birds and Seals Protection Act, No. 46 of 1973	DEAT: delegated to provinces in respect of sea birds
Provincial, local and private nature reserves	Various provincial ordinances	Nine provincial administrations, numerous local authorities, private landowners
Ramsar site	No legal status (proposed Wetland Conservation Act)	DEAT and conservation authorities
Private conservancies	No legal status	Farmers
Biosphere reserves	No legal status	Conservation authority/neighbours
Sites of conservation significance	No legal status	Private landowners
Natural heritage sites	Not legally enforceable	Private landowners

1.4. ENVIRONMENTALLY SOUND AND SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT ADJACENT TO PROTECTED AREAS

Policy objective 1.4.

Promote environmentally sound and sustainable development in areas adjacent to or within protected areas, with a view to furthering protection of these areas

(The promotion of stainable development throughout the landscape is considered in Goal 2).

Policy and Strategy

Urgent attention is required to ensure that biodiversity is conserved not only within protected areas, but across the landscape, and that sustainable development is promoted throughout South Africa. This is a fundamental component of Goal 2, which articulates the manner in which sustainable development is to be promoted throughout the whole country.

However, a special case can be made for paying attention to areas adjacent to or within protected areas, given that activities occurring in such areas may be critical to the protected area's success. Furthermore, the ecological landscape is often a continuum between designated protected areas and surrounding regions. The viability of protected areas is thus dependent upon the extent to which such areas are socially, economically, and ecologically integrated into the surrounding region. This fact is also recognised by the Convention, which has a specific provision aimed at promoting sustainable development in areas adjacent to protected areas.

These issues are especially pertinent to protected areas in South Africa, several of which fall within some of the most populous and poverty-stricken parts of the country. As protected areas are often centres of economic activity, social and economic conditions within and outside of these areas contrast starkly. These discrepancies are aggravated by the fact that in the past some protected areas were established at severe cost to communities. In the creation of protected areas, many communities were forcibly removed without adequate compensation. Furthermore, a "fences and fines" approach resulted in people being denied access to resources upon which they depended. Aggravating these circumstances is the fact that protected areas have remained inaccessible to the majority of South Africa's people, and are perceived to be playgrounds for a privileged elite, from which few benefits are derived. These imbalances are well recognised, and are in some instances being redressed by conservation and other agencies.

Government will bolster such initiatives, and in collaboration with interested and affected groups will:

1. Develop and introduce appropriate strategies, mechanisms and incentives to integrate protected areas within the broader ecological and social landscape, and encourage conservation in adjacent private and communal areas. This may include the establishment of biosphere reserves; buffer zones; community-based wildlife management schemes; multiple use areas; tourism plans; development projects; or the introduction of conservation grants and other economic incentives.
2. Support and promote activities adjacent to protected areas that are compatible with and which complement the objectives of the protected area (see also Objectives 2.2 and 2.3).
3. Support the development of community-based wildlife management initiatives as part of a broader set of approaches to land-use planning and developing local sustainable development strategies.
4. Promote the development of partnerships between conservation agencies, community organisations, NGOs, and private entrepreneurs for purposes of planning and managing the use of resources within and outside of protected areas, and optimising benefits for local people.
5. Enhance the capacity of communities residing in or adjacent to protected areas to participate in protected area management through providing appropriate training and education, and through recognising local expertise and traditional institutions.
6. Take steps to avoid or minimise damage caused to people and property by wildlife (see also Objective 1.2).
7. Seek innovative ways of improving benefit flows to people in and around protected areas through:
   1. promoting local and social development (e.g. using local producers and labour as far as possible, facilitating joint venture schemes, providing community services, providing environmental education and opportunities within protected areas, promoting community management and co-management of protected areas);
   2. designating areas for sustainable resource use; and
   3. facilitating where appropriate the development of compensation agreements with those who have lost access to resources or who have suffered damage caused by wildlife.
8. Through the Land Restitution Programme, and in accordance with the Constitution of South Africa and the Restitution of Land Rights Act 22 of 1994, facilitate the settlement of land claims, taking into account the intrinsic biodiversity value of the land, and seeking outcomes which will combine the objectives of restitution with the conservation and sustainable use of biodiversity.

1.5. REHABILITATION

Policy objective 1.5.

Restore and rehabilitate degraded ecosystems, and strengthen and further develop species recovery plans where practical and where this will make a significant contribution to the conservation and sustainable use of biological diversity.

Rehabilitation Efforts in South Africa

South Africa's land- and seascapes have changed dramatically over the past few centuries, largely through human settlement and associated activities. Often these activities have resulted in the degradation or loss of ecosystems, and in some instances in the extinction of species. Our recent history of apartheid planning led to particularly marked effects in the former homelands, through creating densely populated pockets of land, which are now sites of severe soil erosion, overgrazing and resource depletion. Previous policies also encouraged unsustainable land-use practices by providing subsidies to farmers occupying marginal lands.

Over the years there have been various private and public sector efforts to rehabilitate degraded areas, primarily to restore the productivity of agriculturally degraded lands on large commercial farms, but also to rehabilitate previously mined areas. Within protected areas, efforts to reintroduce threatened species and promote their recovery have been considerable, with off-site conservation approaches such as captive breeding and plant propagation being successfully wed to increase populations of threatened species.

However, to date there has been no overall national approach to rehabilitation which aims to restore ecosystem functioning and biodiversity.

Policy and Strategy

Government recognises that the rehabilitation of degraded ecosystems in South Africa is a major task, requiring the commitment of significant resources from both national coffers and the private sector. For the purposes of this policy, and within the confines of existing rehabilitation directives, Government will require that rehabilitation actions be prioritised on the basis of the contribution that restored areas can make to the conservation and sustainable use of biodiversity. In particular, rehabilitation actions will not be emphasised to the detriment of achieving Objectives 1.1 and 1.2.

Within this context, Government, in collaboration with interested and affected parties, will:

1. Develop a programme to rehabilitate degraded systems of national concern. This will:
   1. identify key sites for restoration, based upon biological and socio-economic criteria, and in accordance with Objective 1.1, and develop and implement rehabilitation plans for identified sites;
   2. link remedial action to the provision of jobs, skills and opportunities for the poor and disadvantaged wherever possible and appropriate;
   3. support research to enhance techniques to restore biodiversity in degraded systems;
   4. monitor the effectiveness of rehabilitation measures; and
   5. continue to regulate and minimise adverse impacts of harmful activities on biodiversity.
2. Continue to conserve and restore populations of threatened species by:
   1. developing appropriate legislation, and undertaking additional measures where necessary;
   2. developing tools to enable their identification;
   3. developing and implementing recovery plans for species at risk; and
   4. promoting the use and involvement of off-site (ex-situ) conservation facilities and expertise where necessary.
3. Require rehabilitation measures to be undertaken as an integral part of environmental impact assessments, to minimise potential negative impacts and to enhance possible positive impacts on biodiversity.
4. Address concerns relating to the genetic contamination and loss of genetic variability amongst populations.

1.6. ALIEN ORGANISMS

Policy objective 1.6.

Prevent the introduction of potentially harmful alien species and control and eradicate alien species which threaten ecosystems, habitats or species.

Alien Organisms in South Africa

Alien organisms are plants, animals and microorganisms which do not naturally occur in an area, and which are deliberately or accidentally introduced by humans to ecosystems outside of their natural range.

This may be at a local level, where species are moved from one type of habitat to another, or at a global level, where species are introduced into different continents or regions. Alien organisms can be divided into (a) those that are problematic and harmful, in that they negatively impact on biodiversity; and (b) those that are benign and in many instances serve useful purposes. This policy focusses upon alien organisms which threaten ecosystems, habitats or species.

Many alien plant and animal species have been introduced into South Africa over the years. A large proportion of such introductions have been deliberate, for purposes of agriculture, forestry, or even conservation. Indeed, much of South Africa's agriculture and forestry production depends upon species that originated from other countries. These organisms provide important economic and social benefits, but many have become invasive, causing serious ecosystem degradation, disrupting ecological processes, and resulting in species extinctions and possible reductions in genetic diversity through hybridisation. In the Cape Peninsula, for example, invasive alien plants are chiefly responsible for the highest concentration of threatened taxa in the world. Elsewhere in the country the invasion of water catchment areas by alien plants has been responsible for reducing water availability - a serious concern in a drought-stricken country such as South Africa.

Introduced animals have also reduced South Africa's biodiversity, a few examples being the Argentinian ant, the Himalayan thar, the European starling, the house sparrow and the black rat, and on South Africa's islands, house mice, rabbits, and feral domestic cats. Some of the most drastic impacts of invasive animal species have been recorded in South African rivers, where alien fish, and to a lesser extent invertebrate and reptile species, have altered habitats and successfully outcompeted native fauna.

Up to 60% of the threatened endemic freshwater fish of South Africa may be threatened by introduced fish species such as trout, carp and bass. Similarly in the marine environment, the accidental introduction of alien species through ballast water or on ship hulls has resulted in a number of alien species occupying our shores and coastal waters, in some instances displacing local species.

Policy and Strategy

Government is acutely aware of the adverse impacts of harmful alien organisms on biodiversity and is committed to controlling and regulating the introduction and spread of such organisms. Several measures are in place which support this commitment, including extensive legislation, as well as numerous management and research programmes. An RDP project is also underway to clear invasive alien vegetation as part of a water conservation campaign and job-creation scheme.

Despite these measures, Government recognises that many past efforts at control have been unsuccessful, a major problem being the fact that responses have been reactive, with actions taken only after invasive alien species have become a problem. This ad hoc approach has not been cost-effective, and has resulted in drastic impacts on biodiversity. To redress this, Government will adopt a proactive, preventative and precautionary approach to control the introduction and spread of alien organisms. This approach will take into consideration the need to balance the risks associated with introducing and releasing alien organisms with the potential social, economic and environmental benefits derived therefrom.

To achieve this objective, Government, in collaboration with interested and affected parties, will:

1. (a) Review, streamline, and if necessary strengthen existing legislation to control the introduction and spread of potentially harmful alien organisms. Actions will be taken to improve the effectiveness of legislation and ensure consistency; and

   (b) Strengthen the enforcement and effectiveness of existing punitive measures to control the introduction and spread of potentially harmful alien organisms.

2. Develop a regulatory procedure for the introduction of alien organisms into South Africa, whereby the potential risks of introduction are comprehensively assessed against intended benefits prior to introduction. This assessment will be followed by the adoption of appropriate mitigatory or preventative measures.
3. Develop control and eradication programmes, and provide ongoing support to existing programmes, based on a priority-rating system and in relation to costs and resources. This will consider threats posed to biodiversity, as well as social, economic, and environmental costs and benefits derived from using and removing identified organisms. The planning of intensive mechanical clearing operations will take account of job creation schemes and will provide for regular follow-up.
4. Prevent wherever feasible the unintentional introduction of alien organisms to South Africa.
5. Develop a national policy on the inter- and intra-provincial translocation and inter-basin transfer of species, including the updating of lists of prohibited and approved taxa.
6. Promote the use of local, indigenous species in rehabilitation and revegetation schemes.
7. Provide incentives to landowners to control or eradicate alien organisms identified as threatening biodiversity.
8. Strengthen, support and coordinate the efforts of existing institutions and programmes to detect the early establishment of invasive alien organisms, and to catalogue and describe such invasions.
9. Support and strengthen the development of biological and other control methods for alien organisms that threaten biodiversity.
10. Improve understanding concerning the impacts of alien organisms on biodiversity.
11. Improve public education and awareness concerning the risks posed by the planting or illegal importation of alien species, and identify actions which can be taken to avoid such risks or to control the spread of alien organisms.
12. Improve capacity amongst implementing agencies to regulate the introduction, control and eradication of alien organisms that threaten biodiversity.
13. Negotiate and liaise with neighbouring countries to maximise commonalities and minimise conflicts between policies, legislation, and practices relating to alien organisms that threaten biodiversity.

1.7. GENETICALLY MODIFIED ORGANISMS

Policy objective 1.7.

Regulate the transfer, handling, use and release of genetically modified organisms in order to minimise the potential risks to biodiversity and human health.

Biotechnology and Genetically Modified Organisms

For centuries living organisms have been manipulated using traditional techniques such as fermentation, classical plant breeding and artificial insemination to produce new breeds, food, medicines, or other products. Although these and other newer techniques are still practiced, methods have become increasingly sophisticated during the past twenty years, with the development of a wide range of novel molecular biotechnologies. The most significant of these has been recombinant DNA or 'gene transfer' technology, which makes it possible to cut DNA from any source into fragments, and to recombine genes from widely different organisms to yield forms with specific characteristics. Traits such as herbicide resistance can be incorporated into crops to increase yields; hormones created to increase milk yield in cows; and microbes engineered to clean up oil-spills. This is what is commonly referred to as 'genetic engineering'. Genetically modified organisms are organisms whose genetic makeup has been altered by the insertion or removal of small fragments of genes or genetic material (e.g. DNA, RNA, plasmids) in order to create or enhance desirable characteristics.

Modern biotechnology has far reaching applications for agriculture, chemical processing, human and animal health, and environmental management, and is one of the fastest growing industries in the world. However, the release of genetically modified organisms into the environment raises many questions about safety, ecological and agricultural impacts, genetic diversity, socio-economic effects, and the appropriateness of using genetically engineered organisms in particular applications. Many concerns relate to the nature of the risks involved, which are often difficult to predict and determine. Complex relationships exist between inserted genes and other genes, and between genes and the biochemistry of cells and organisms. If not controlled and monitored, genetic engineering risks triggering a cascade of uncertain effects and reducing natural biodiversity.

The South African biotechnology industry is relatively well-developed, especially with regard to traditional technologies such as alcohol fermentation and bioleaching. Considerable attention has additionally been given to developing the research capacity for conventional and recombinant DNA technologies, although the commercial application of technologies has not developed to the same extent. To date, there have been five field trials with genetically modified organisms permitted in South Africa. The need to regulate the industry to minimise and avoid adverse impacts is widely recognised by both industry and other stakeholders. However, public knowledge on the issue is scant and there is a crucial need to improve public awareness and open up the issue to a wider debate.

Policy and Strategy

Government is aware of the urgent need to take measures to regulate the transfer, handling, use and release of genetically modified organisms in order to minimise the potential risks to biodiversity and human health. To this end, a Bill on genetically modified organisms has been drafted, and there has been government involvement in international negotiations concerning the development of a Biosafety Protocol for the safe handling, use and transfer of genetically modified organisms. Government is of the belief that a proactive and precautionary approach should be taken with regard to the transfer, handling, use and release of genetically modified organisms. This approach will take into consideration the need to balance the risks associated with genetically modified organisms with the potential social, economic and environmental benefits derived therefrom.

To achieve the objective, Government, in collaboration with interested and affected parties, will:

2. (a) Review, streamline, and if necessary strengthen existing and proposed legislation to establish effective management and control measures to regulate the transfer, handling, use and release of genetically modified organisms in order to minimise the potential risks to biodiversity and human health; and

   (b) Continue to participate in international efforts to develop a Biosafety Protocol for the safe handling, use and transfer of genetically modified organisms.

3. Support the adoption of a Code of Conduct for those importing, releasing or undertaking research on genetically modified organisms.
4. Support research that furthers an understanding of the potential ecological, social and economic impacts of genetically modified organisms.
5. Improve public education and awareness concerning the risks and benefits of biotechnology, including genetically modified organisms.
6. Develop and support national training and capacity-building programmes in risk assessment and risk management for the safe transfer, handling, use and release of genetically modified organisms.
7. (a) Negotiate and liaise with neighbouring countries to maximise commonalities and minimise conflicts between policies, legislation and practices relating to genetically modified organisms; and

   (b) Promote capacity-building in biosafety within the southern African region, through, inter alia, related programmes within the United Nations Environment Programme, and the Regional Biosafety Focal Point in Harare. In this regard special consideration will be given to the risk of unintended movements of genetically of unintended movements of genetically modified organisms across national boundaries.

1.8. EX-SITU CONSERVATION

Policy objective 1.8.

Support, complement and enhance in-situ conservation through strengthening measures for the ex-situ conservation of components of biological diversity.

What is Ex-Situ Conservation?

Ex-situ conservation concerns the conservation of genetic resources and of wild and domesticated animals, plants, fungi, and microorganisms off-site, or outside of their natural habitats. In contrast, in-situ conservation means the conservation of biodiversity in the wild through the conservation of ecosystems and natural habitats, and the maintenance and recovery of viable populations of species in their natural surroundings.

Many techniques and facilities are used for ex-situ conservation, including botanical and zoological gardens, nurseries, arboreta, aquaria, herbaria, genebanks, tissue and culture collections, and captive breeding units.

Ex-Situ Conservation in South Africa

The responsibility for ex-situ conservation in South Africa lies with a variety of government, parastatal and private concerns. Most gene and seedbanks are held by the Department of Agriculture, and by institutes of the Agricultural Research Council, whose collections comprise both indigenous and foreign material. A genebank is also maintained by the Department of Water Affairs and Forestry, and a small number of endangered fynbos species are held in collections by the University of Cape Town.

Living plant collections are contained in 30-40 botanical gardens, managed by the National Botanical Institute and an assortment of universities and local authorities. About twenty zoological gardens exist, the majority of which are privately owned. The National Zoological Gardens, in addition to managing several zoological collections which contain both exotic and indigenous species, operates four captive breeding centres. Also located within the country are several aquaria.

Policy and Strategy

In-situ conservation is recognised by Government to be the cornerstone of its strategy to conserve South Africa's biodiversity, but ex-situ conservation, and the techniques and facilities used for ex-situ conservation, are considered to be essential measures to support, complement and enhance in-situ conservation. Some important steps have already been taken in this regard, and well-established ex-situ facilities exist in the country, but Government acknowledges the need for additional attention, especially with regard to the management and coordination of genebanks.

To achieve the described objective Government, in collaboration with interested and affected parties, will:

1. Enhance the participation of ex-situ institutions in in-situ conservation actions identified by Objective 1.1 to be a priority.
   1. Promote the ex-situ conservation by relevant government departments of indigenous and domesticated livestock breeds, plant genetic resources and microorganisms suitable for agricultural, medicinal, industrial, horticultural, or other commercial purposes;
   2. Enhance the characterisation and evaluation of such collections to stimulate and encourage their use and, through regeneration and multiplication, to increase their availability to potential users; and
   3. Ensure that ex-situ collections are brought in line with internationally agreed genebank standards.
2. Coordinate the efforts of diverse institutions to enable the development of a comprehensive national strategy to conserve and cost-effectively manage and utilise South Africa's ex-situ genetic resource collections.
3. Regulate and manage the collection of biological resources from natural habitats for ex-situ conservation purposes so as to avoid or minimise threats to ecosystems and in-situ populations of species.
4. Adopt measures by means of ex-situ conservation for the recovery and restoration of threatened species, and for their introduction into natural habitats under appropriate conditions (see also Objective 1.5).
5. Strengthen the educational role of existing facilities.
6. Coordinate ex-situ collaborative programmes within the southern African region to maximise conservation of the region's genetic diversity.
   
   

Chapter 3 (B)

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5 Calculated from data in Vegetation of South Africa, Lesotho and Swaziland, edited by A.B. Low and A.G. Rebelo. Published by the Department of Environmental Affairs and Tourism, January 1996.

6 IUCN 1994. Guidelines for Protected Area Management Categories. World Conservation Monitoring Centre, Cambridge and IUCN Commission on National Parks and Protected Areas. IUCN, Gland.

7 As described in the Government Gazette of 9 May 1994 Notice 449.

8 Note that DEAT refers to the Department of Environmental Affairs and Tourism, and DWAF the Department of Water Affairs and Forestry.