GOAL 2:
USE BIOLOGICAL RESOURCES SUSTAINABLY AND MINIMISE ADVERSE IMPACTS ON BIOLOGICAL DIVERSITY

This section describes South Africa's plans for meeting three key requirements of the Convention:

• the integration of biodiversity considerations into national decision-making;
• the sustainable use of biological diversity; and
• avoiding or minimising adverse impacts on biodiversity.

The section is divided into four parts:

• sectoral and cross-sectoral approaches;
• using biological resources sustainably and avoiding or minimising adverse impacts on biological diversity in terrestrial, aquatic, and marine and coastal areas;
• integrating biodiversity considerations into land-use planning and environmental assessment procedures; and
• adopting sustainable lifestyles.

Introduction

All South Africans rely on industries or economic activities which directly use biological resources or the services provided by ecosystems. Through such activities, jobs and opportunities are created, and significant contributions are made to the country's economy. However, these benefits are not without direct and indirect costs to the environment: activities which provide socio-economic gains from the use of biological resources and ecosystems often result in the loss of biodiversity, including the impairment of ecosystem functioning. These costs are not considered in conventional accounting measures of national income, consequently indicators such as Gross National Product (GNP) do not reflect the unsustainable depletion of biological resources as a loss to the country's wealth.

To enable South Africans to continue to benefit from the use of biodiversity, and to keep our country fit for life, we need to ensure that decision-making is based upon the real costs and benefits of conserving biodiversity; that biological resources are used sustainably; and that adverse impacts on biodiversity are minimised.

Affected Sectors

South Africa's biodiversity is used by many different sectors in many different ways. At a broad level, these can be divided into economic sectors which:

1. directly use biological resources, are dependent upon the renewal of such resources, and which by overuse may impact on biodiversity (e.g. fishing, hunting, grazing);
2. those which depend upon ecological processes, but which require the direct transformation of natural systems, and actively impact on biodiversity (e.g. cultivation, afforestation); and
3. those which do not directly depend upon ecological processes, nor on the consumptive use of biological resources, but which may inadvertently have impacts on biodiversity (e.g. mining, tourism).

Within each of these categories - and reflective of South Africa's dual economy - are modern, highly commercialised industries, as well as more traditional, subsistence activities.

1. Sectors that are directly dependent upon the use of local wild species

Highly commercialised sectors that are directly dependent upon the use of local species harvested from the wild, and the renewal of such resources, include the fishing, woodharvesting, hunting, wildflower, traditional medicine, and other natural product industries.

Reliance upon wild species at the subsistence level includes the gathering, harvesting or hunting of animals and plants for food, medicine, shelter, fuel, building materials, and trade.

Agriculture, as a sector which directly uses ecosystems to provide adequate natural grazing for livestock, can similarly be identified as being directly dependent upon indigenous biological resources, and the adequate renewal thereof.

3. Sectors that depend upon ecological processes and require natural habitats to be transformed

   Less dependent upon the direct use of indigenous biological resources are activities such as cultivation and afforestation, which depend upon ecological processes - such as the generation of soils, the pollination of crops, or the control of pests - but which require that natural habitats be transformed. The removal of biodiversity is thus a necessary precondition to the successful production of crops or trees.

4. Sectors that do not depend on ecological processes or biological resources, but which have impacts on biodiversity

   Many other sectors in South Africa do not rely upon the direct, consumptive use of biodiversity, but may depend upon the maintenance of biodiversity, or may inadvertently have considerable negative impacts on biodiversity. These include industrial sectors dependent upon non-renewable resources, such as mining and energy; those which rely upon chemical or biological processes; those involved in manufacturing or the provision of services such as housing or transport; as well as sectors such as tourism and recreation.

Sectoral Impacts

Each of these sectors impacts upon biodiversity in different ways, and at many different levels of activity. Such activities may result in:

• habitat degradation, loss and fragmentation;
• the overexploitation of species;
• the pollution of soil, air and water;
• the invasion of harmful alien organisms; and
• climatic change (see Table 3).

The importance of each of these primary mechanisms for biodiversity loss varies according to the specific organism being utilised, or to the nature of the ecosystem which is impacted upon

In the terrestrial areas of South Africa for example, habitat loss and fragmentation are the most important factors resulting in biodiversity loss.

In aquatic areas, catchment changes, together with alien plant and animal invasions, and domestic, agricultural and industrial pollution, are among some of the primers mechanisms for biodiversity loss.

Estuarine areas, as the interface between rivers and the sea, are profoundly affected by upstream activities, and particularly by factors such as the over-abstraction of water and the alteration of river flows.

And in marine and coastal areas, the main threat to biodiversity arises from the over-exploitation of marine and coastal resources and from related fishing practices, although pollution and coastal degradation also represent significant threats.

Quite obviously different strategies have to be adopted by the variety of sectors involved, and for the range of ecological systems occurring in the country. In some sectors, livelihoods may be at risk if present activities are not continued, and it may take time to implement required changes. In other sectors, there may be a lack of capacity to effect change, and few economic alternatives. And in others entrenched institutional structures or interests may be in place which are difficult to change.

Table 3: Negative Impacts of Sectoral Activities on Biological Diversity in South Africa

Impact economic sector	Habitat loss and fragmentation	Over-exploitation of species
Agriculture	Primarily through cultivation, requiring the removal of natural vegetation, and through bush encroachment	Overgrazing in parts of the country may result in certain species being over-exploited. Through over-harvesting of wildflowers
Biotechnology industry	8	8
Chemical industry	8	8
Impact economic sector	Air, water and soil pollution	Introduction of harmful alien species
Agriculture	Largely through the use of agrochemicals, through siltation, and from mariculture and aquaculture enterprises Through the introduction of alien species for mariculture and aquaculture	In some instances, through the introduction of high-yielding exotic species for cultivation or pastoral purposes
Biotechnology industry	8	Potential risk through the transfer, handling, use and release of genetically modified organisms
Chemical industry	Activities related to the chemical industry may result in air, water and soil pollution	8
Impact economic sector	Key state institutions involved in promoting or regulating the activity
Agriculture	Departments of Agriculture; Land Affairs; Environmental Affairs and Tourism. Related provincial departments; agricultural research
Biotechnology industry	Departments of Agriculture; Trade and Industry; Environmental Affairs and Tourism; Health. Agricultural Research Council; CSIR
Chemical industry	Departments of Trade and Industry; Environmental Affairs and Tourism; Water Affairs and Forestry; Health
Impact economic sector	Habitat loss and fragmentation	Over-exploitation of species
Defence	Through the use of the land and sea for weapons testing and training	Over-exploitation of species in areas used for purposes of defence
Domestic households	Indirectly, through requiring the range of different economic services described above	Through the harvesting of certain plants and animals for food, building, fuel or medicinal purposes
Power generation	Through the clearing of land for the construction of infrastructure Potentially through global warming	8
Fisheries	Through physical damage to habitat from certain fishing gear	Over-exploitation of target and non-target species, with ramifications for other species and supporting ecosystems
Impact economic sector	Air, water and soil pollution	Introduction of harmful alien species
Defence	Through the production and use of various weapons	8
Domestic households	Through the generation of sewage and household waste, as well as pollutants associated with cooking and heating	Through the use of harmful alien species in gardens
Power generation	Air, water and soil pollution through the burning of coal and related processes, and the generation of waste from the nuclear industry	8
Fisheries	From mariculture and aquaculture enterprises, as well as from fishing gear	Through the introduction of alien species for mariculture and aquaculture
Impact economic sector	Key state institutions involved in promoting or regulating the activity
Defence	South African National Defence Force Department of Environmental Affairs and Tourism; South African Police Services
Domestic households	Broad range of national, provincial and local government departments
Power generation	Departments of Minerals and Energy; Water Affairs and Forestry; Trade and Industry; Public Enterprise; Health; Environmental Affairs and Tourism Eskom
Fisheries	Directorate Sea Fisheries (Department of Environmental Affairs and Tourism); provincial departments of nature conservation
Impact economic sector	Habitat loss and fragmentation	Over-exploitation of species
Forestry9	Through afforestation, which involves the replacement of natural vegetation	Over-exploitation of both commercial and subsistence levels of certain woodland species in parts of the country
Housing and infrastructure	Through the clearing of land for development	May occur through the over-use of indigenous plants for building materials
Mining industry	Through the clearing of land and disturbance of marine and coastal habitats for prospecting and mining activities. The abstraction of water may impact on wetland systems	8
Impact economic sector	Air, water and soil pollution	Introduction of harmful alien species
Forestry9	Through, inter alia, the pulp and paper industry and the use of agrochemicals	In some instances, through the introduction of high-yielding exotic species for commercial forestry and recreational purposes
Housing and infrastructure	May occur from construction activities	Through the use of harmful alien species in gardens and parks
Mining industry	Activities related to the mining industry may result in water, air and soil pollution. Up to 80% of total solid waste generated in the country arises from the mining industry	8
Impact economic sector	Key state institutions involved in promoting or regulating the activity
Forestry9	Departments of Water Affairs and Forestry; Environmental Affairs and Tourism; Safcol
Housing and infrastructure	Departments of Housing; provincial departments of housing; other relevant provincial and local government departments
Mining industry	Departments of Minerals and Energy; Water Affairs and Forestry; Trade and Industry; Environmental Affairs and Tourism; Health
Impact economic sector	Habitat loss and fragmentation	Exploitation of species
Tourism and recreation	Through the construction of tourist-related facilities, particularly along the coast. Through exceeding the tourist-carrying capacity in certain areas. Through impact of off-road vehicles	Through recreational fishing and the over-exploitation of "collectable" species
Trade	8	Over-exploitation of species in demand for medicinal or wildlife trade purposes
Transport	Through road and rail construction and shipping-related activities	8
Water	Through dam construction, and water-transfer schemes	8
Impact economic sector	Air, water and soil pollution	Introduction of harmful alien species
Tourism and recreation	Through litter, principally plastic waste	Through the introduction of exotic fish species for angling
Trade	Through trade in chemicals and other harmful substances	Through the unintentional introduction of harmful alien species
Transport	Air, water and soil pollution through road, rail, air and sea	Through the unintentional introduction of alien species through road, rail, air and sea
Water	Through excessive removal of water from watercourses and the consequent concentration of pollutants	Through inter-basin transfer schemes which unintentionally introduce alien species
Impact economic sector	Key state institutions involved in promoting or regulating the activity
Tourism and recreation	Department of Environmental Affairs and Tourism; Satour; National Parks Board; provincial departments of environment and tourism; and nature conservation agencies
Trade	Departments of Trade and Industry; Environmental Affairs and Tourism; Health; South African Police Services; related provincial departments
Transport	Departments of Transport; Environmental Affairs and Tourism; Health; Trade and Industry
Water	Departments of Water Affairs and Forestry; Environmental Affairs and Tourism; Health

2.1. SECTORAL AND CROSS-SECTORAL APPROACHES

Policy objective 2.1.

Integrate the conservation and sustainable use of biological diversity into all sectoral and cross-sectoral plans, programmes and policies at all levels of government and industry.

Policy and Strategy

Government recognises that to achieve the goal of using biological resources sustainably and minimising adverse impacts on biodiversity, considerations about biodiversity must be integrated into all spheres of national, provincial and local decision-making, both within and across different sectors. This is a key objective of the biodiversity policy, as well as being an integral part of the development of general national environmental policy.

To achieve this objective, Government, in collaboration with interested and affected parties, will:

1. Ensure that existing South African domestic and foreign policies, plans and programmes support the conservation and sustainable use of biological resources and minimise adverse impacts on biodiversity.
2. Ensure the effective incorporation of biodiversity considerations into all new policies, plans and programmes, including the development of a national environmental policy for South Africa, and other ongoing policy initiatives of relevance to biodiversity.
3. Require all government departments responsible for activities affecting biodiversity, or for activities concerning the conservation or use of biodiversity, to develop sector-specific plans based upon agreed guidelines.
4. Require sector-specific plans to reflect the integration of biodiversity considerations in relevant sectoral budgets.
5. Establish a national mechanism, representative of key sectors, to oversee, coordinate, and better integrate government policies which directly or indirectly affect biodiversity.
6. Adopt measures to allow for the full environmental, social and economic costs and benefits of conserving and using biodiversity sustainably to be reflected in economic markets, and in national indices of economic status.

2.2. USING BIOLOGICAL RESOURCES SUSTAINABLY AND AVOIDING OR MINIMISING ADVERSE IMPACTS ON BIOLOGICAL DIVERSITY

Policy objective 2.2.

Conserve and use sustainably biological resources in terrestrial, aquatic and marine and coastal areas and avoid or minimise adverse impacts on the biodiversity of such areas.

2.2.1. Common approaches

Policy and Strategy

Ensuring the conservation and sustainable use of terrestrial, aquatic, and marine and coastal areas, and minimising adverse impacts on the biodiversity of such areas will require several common approaches to be adopted.

For terrestrial, aquatic, and marine and coastal areas, Government, in collaboration with interested and affected parties, will:

1. Strengthen and streamline existing, or introduce new policies, legislation, incentives, and disincentives to avoid or minimise the adverse effects of human activities on the biodiversity of terrestrial, aquatic, and coastal and marine areas.
2. Support the incorporation of IEM principles and appropriate environmental management procedures into all planning controls and legislation.
3. Require the adoption and effective implementation and enforcement of appropriate regulations concerning the control of activities which may have a detrimental effect on the environment.
4. Identify and wherever possible remove incentives that encourage the loss of biodiversity and the unsustainable, inefficient, and inequitable use of biological resources, taking into consideration social, economic and environmental costs and benefits.
5. Maintain, adjust, or develop new financial and other incentives that support the conservation and sustainable use of biodiversity, and stimulate local stewardship of terrestrial, aquatic, and marine and coastal areas.
6. Continue to develop guidelines and determine sustainable harvesting rates and utilisation levels for species and ecosystems used directly for commercial, recreational, or subsistence purposes, or indirectly for purposes such as livestock production.
7. Ensure that harvesting arrangements are based on the long-term viability of the species concerned and on maintaining ecosystem integrity.
8. Investigate the use of alternative species or economic activities in cases where the harvesting of species or use of ecosystems is shown to be unsustainable.
9. Undertake research and develop and apply methods and technologies aimed at removing or reducing the adverse impacts of harmful activities on terrestrial, aquatic, and marine and coastal biodiversity, and improving the management of such areas.
10. Strengthen management systems for terrestrial, aquatic, and marine and coastal areas by including traditional knowledge, innovations and practices where applicable.
11. Restore and rehabilitate degraded ecosystems where practical and where this will make a significant contribution to the conservation and sustainable use of biodiversity (see also Objective 1.5).
12. Discourage development in areas in which biodiversity and ecological function would be adversely affected (see also Objective 1.1).
13. Negotiate and liaise with neighbouring countries to maximise commonalities and minimise conflicts between policies, legislation and practices relating to cross-border areas such as mountain ranges, water catchments, marine and coastal regions, as well as areas required for animal migration.

2.2.2. Terrestrial areas

Terrestrial Biodiversity in South Africa

The transformation of South Africa's terrestrial areas is perhaps the most visibly dramatic evidence of the loss of biodiversity in the country. Comprehensive estimates are not available concerning the extent to which terrestrial areas have been modified, although a conservative assessment is that at least 25% of the land has been transformed for purposes of cultivation or afforestation, for urban or industrial development, or to enable roads, railways and dams to be built. Areas which are not developed may be subject to overgrazing, to infestation by alien plants and animals, or to the overexploitation of certain species for subsistence or trade purposes.

There are seven major terrestrial biomes, or habitat types, in South Africa: forest, fynbos, grassland, Nama karoo, succulent karoo, savanna, and thicket (see Tables IV and V). These biomes can in turn be divided into 68 vegetation types, which are communities which share common species, have similar vegetation structures, and share the same set of ecological processes. The degree to which each of these biomes is threatened varies, depending upon the fertility of the soil, the economic value derived from use of the area, human population pressures, and the extent to which the biome is conserved in protected areas. The grassland biome, for example, is the mainstay of dairy, beef, and wool production in South Africa and of crops such as maize. It is also poorly represented in protected areas. Similarly much of the Renosterveld, which is part of the fynbos biome, has been ploughed for agriculture, and is also no represented adequately in protected areas. Urgent conservation action is also needed for the Nama karoo, succulent karoo, and thicket biomes.

Policy and Strategy

The loss of biodiversity in terrestrial areas of South Africa is considered by Government to be a matter of grave concern, requiring urgent action by diverse sectors at many different levels. Government recognises the important role played by involved sectors in the economic development of the country, but believes that opportunities exist, through conserving and using biological resources sustainably, to optimise both conservation and development benefits, and to minimise the adverse impacts of various activities on terrestrial biodiversity.

To achieve this objective, Government, in collaboration with interested and affected parties, will:

1. Investigate, formulate and implement integrated land-use planning approaches that include multiple natural resource activities which are compatible with and which complement the conservation and sustainable use of biodiversity.
2. Promote the conservation of biodiversity in urban areas by encouraging retention of habitat and wherever possible focusing future development on existing built-up areas.
3. Encourage the planting of indigenous crops and trees to build the local resource base and to improve living environments.
   1. Review the impact of agricultural and commercial forestry practices on biodiversity and seek changes where necessary;
   2. Ensure that biodiversity considerations are incorporated into the review of the afforestation permit system;
   3. Strongly encourage agricultural producers to incorporate biodiversity considerations in farm management practices and plans;
   4. Promote the optimal use of on-farm inputs, and the minimal use of external inputs such as chemical fertilisers and pesticides;
   5. Foster the development and use of safe agricultural pest control products and the use of integrated pest management approaches to minimise adverse impacts on ecosystems and on non-target species;
   6. Promote sustainable rangeland management practices to maintain maximum species diversity, and discourage agricultural production on poor or marginal land;
   7. Promote irrigation practices which use water efficiently and which minimise waterlogging, salinisation, and other adverse effects on biodiversity;
   8. Support the ex-situ and on farm conservation and sustainable use of indigenous and domesticated livestock breeds and crop varieties;
   9. Support coordinated research and development into achieving the ecologically sustainable use of biological resources in agriculture and forestry, and minimising adverse impacts on biodiversity; and
   10. Strengthen delivery of extension and research services related to the management of agricultural, forestry, and pastoral systems to ensure the sustainable use of biological resources and the conservation of biodiversity.

		Number of species
Province	Biome	Plant	Mammal	Bird	Amphibian	Reptile
Eastern Cape	7	6 164	156	384	51	57
Free State	3	2 984	93	334	29	47
Gauteng	2	3 303	125	326	25	53
KwaZulu-Natal	4	6 141	177	462	68	86
Mpumalanga	3	4 782	160	464	48	82
North-West	2	3 025	138	384	27	59
Northern Cape	6	5 067	139	302	29	53
Northern Province	3	4 236	239	479	44	89
Western Cape	6	8 925	153	305	39	52

2.2.3. Aquatic areas and wetlands

What are Wetlands?

Many of the adverse impacts of human activities on biodiversity manifest themselves most strongly in the wetlands of South Africa. In terms of the Convention on Wetlands of International Importance especially as Waterfowl Habitat (Ramsar Convention) these include "areas of marsh, fen, peatland or water, whether natural or artificial permanent or temporary, with water that is static or flowing, fresh, brackish or salty, including areas of marine water the depth of which does not exceed six metres". Therefore wetlands include riverine, lake, mash, estuarine, and marine systems. Wetlands play a crucial role in terms of providing clean water, maintaining biodiversity, protecting areas against floods, recharging aquifers, buffering against toxins, and providing areas for recreation, education and research.

Freshwater Systems in South Africa

Adverse impacts on freshwater systems are of critical concern given both the scarcity of and increased demand for water in the region. The flow of almost every river system has been regulated by storage dams, or by structures associated with the inter-basin transfer of water. Salinisation, eutrophication, and pollution by heavy metals, mine dump effluents, pesticides, insecticides and herbicides have considerably reduced both surface- and ground-water quality. Catchment changes through afforestation, alien plant invasion, irrigation and over-abstraction, and human settlement have reduced natural run-off and groundwater levels substantially, and invasive plants and animals jeopardise indigenous wildlife on a national scale. Moreover, wetlands such as mashes, bogs and floodplains have undergone considerable alteration and degradation: through drainage for crop and timber cultivation; infilling for urban and industrial development and waste disposal mining for the extraction of sand, clay and peat; as well as through a range of other activities.

Although there is a lack of information concerning wetland losses in South Africa, that evidence which does exist suggests clearly that the loss of wetlands has been high, with loss appearing to be greatest in the coastal and inland margin zones of the country. In the Mfolozi catchment, for example, some 58% of the original wetland area is estimated to have been lost.

South African Estuaries

Estuarine areas, as the interface between rivers and the sea, include some of the most productive and threatened ecosystems in South Africa. Sustaining a rich abundance of fish, bird, and invertebrate species, and habitats such as mangroves, seagrass beds, and saltmarshes, estuaries provide important nursery grounds for marine fish, sustain several fisheries, control flood events, provide a rich feeding ground for birds, and are a necessary component for the life-cycle of many invertebrate species.

The ecological functioning of estuarine ecosystems is critically dependent upon the complex and dynamic interplay between rivers and the sea, a factor which increases the vulnerability of such environments to changes both within catchments and in the sea. Activities having far-reaching effects on estuarine ecosystems include excessive water abstraction, resulting in a reduction of freshwater to estuaries; agricultural practices that lead to increased soil erosion and thus silt deposition in estuaries; urban or industrial development adjacent to estuaries; modifications to river and tidal flows through floodplain development and the construction of bridges, harbours, and dams; and pollution resulting from the diversity of activities occurring in catchments.

Policy and Strategy

The degradation of South African wetlands, and their vulnerability to human-induced changes in catchments and in the sea, is a concern recognised by Government as requiring urgent action and cooperation between a diversity of sectors and institutions. Wetlands represent some of our most threatened ecosystems, and as such their conservation and sustainable use is a crucial component of this policy. Government acknowledges that insufficient attention has been given in the past to secure the effective management of the country's wetlands, and it undertakes to ensure that the future management of such areas will take place in an integrated manner, in accordance with the objective of conserving and using biological resources sustainably, and minimising adverse impacts on aquatic biodiversity. This approach will recognise and accommodate conflicting needs and values.

Several measures already govern the conservation and use of South Africa's wetlands, and many new initiatives are under way, as a result of the revision of the country's water law. Wherever possible and appropriate, Government will bolster such initiatives and, in collaboration with interested and affected parties, will:

1. Support the principle that basic domestic needs and environmental needs will enjoy priority use of water, the latter through reserving the quantity, quality and reliability of water required to maintain natural flow regimes and habitat complexity for aquatic and riparian ecosystems.
2. Facilitate the development of appropriate legislation to secure the conservation of South Africa's wetlands, and to maintain their ecological and socio-economic function.
3. Promote the establishment of a National System of Protected Wetlands as part of the protected area system (see Objective 1.3).
4. Prevent inappropriate activities and development around wetlands, and that of linear development in particular. Ensure that adequate buffer strips are retained around wetlands, taking due cognisance of the 1:50 year floodline.
5. Introduce policy measures to ensure that the price of water reflects the full social, economic and environmental costs and benefits of water provision, taking into consideration the need to maintain life-line tariffs to ensure a basic level of health and quality of life.
6. Through establishing appropriate mechanisms and procedures, recognise the functions and values of wetlands in resource planning, management and decision-making.
7. Ensure that considerations relating to the biodiversity of aquatic areas and wetlands are adequately incorporated into the national policy on integrated pollution control and waste management.
8. Determine the impact of commercial, recreational and subsistence fishery practices on fisheries, fish, and their habitats, and develop guidelines for managing such fisheries on an ecologically sustainable basis.
9. Determine the impact of aquaculture species and management practices on biodiversity, and develop appropriate guidelines for aquaculture developments.
10. Strongly promote the development of catchment-specific partnerships and joint management plans between the range of institutions, organisations and individuals engaged in managing and using wetlands, catchments and associated marine and coastal areas.
11. Provide leadership in international wetland conservation efforts, through the effective and coordinated management of transboundary water and biological resources in southern Africa.

2.2.4. Marine and coastal areas

Marine and Coastal Areas in South Africa

Marine and coastal areas contain a significant amount of South Africa's biological diversity, and in addition to providing essential ecosystem services such as climate regulation, are of importance to the South African economy with regard to the fishing industry, mineral, oil and gas exploitation, tourism, recreation, trade and transport opportunities.

Biodiversity conservation has historically focussed on the terrestrial environment, and while there are common principles for the conservation of terrestrial and marine biodiversity, there are also several characteristics of the marine and coastal environment that present decision-makers and resource managers with a unique set of problems. For example, within the Exclusive Economic Zone, marine resources fall under national ownership, but not in oceanic waters outside of this area; the fact that species straddle or migrate across political boundaries; the "invisibility" of marine, coastal and other aquatic environments, which makes research and monitoring particularly difficult; and the environmental continuity of the oceans, meaning that local impacts may have global effects. Adding complexity to this situation is the fact that aquatic organisms - primarily fish - are the only major human food resource harvested directly from wild populations.

Despite these differences, the threats to marine and particularly to coastal biodiversity are similar in many respects to those facing biodiversity on land, with most threats originating from land-based activities. In South Africa such threats include marine pollution, from domestic sewage, industrial waste, stormwater drains, and oil spills; coastal zone degradation, from rapid urbanisation, tourism, recreation, infrastructural development, and mining on parts of the coast and in the ocean; the overexploitation of marine resources, primarily by industrial fisheries, but also by recreational fishers, and in some intertidal areas, by subsistence communities; and the introduction of alien species, either inadvertently through ballast water or on ship hulls, or intentionally through activities such as mariculture.

Policy and Strategy

South Africa's marine and coastal areas are considered by Government to be an asset of unsurpassed value, requiring careful and effective management to secure lasting benefits for the nation. Several processes are currently underway which support this commitment, including the development of national policies on coastal zone management, and on marine fisheries. Government believes that if marine biodiversity is to be conserved effectively and used sustainably, it is necessary to adopt a cross-sectoral approach which embraces the need for wide-ranging, comprehensive, transboundary responses to threats; which treats the entire hydrological cycle as an integrated unit; and which governs actions on land as well as in the sea. This approach will be the departure point from which a more detailed strategy is pursued.

In this context, and to achieve the objective, Government, in collaboration with interested and affected parties, will:

1. Ensure that considerations relating to the conservation and sustainable use of marine and coastal biodiversity are effectively incorporated into national policies on integrated pollution control and marine fisheries; and
2. Support the rapid development of a national policy on coastal zone management, and the incorporation of biodiversity considerations therein.
3. Require that those using marine resources, receiving services from marine and coastal ecosystems, or producing waste must bear all environmental, social, and economic costs, and the responsibility for any consequential detriment to the environment and to associated biota.
4. Prevent inappropriate activities and development along the coast, and that of linear or ribbon development in particular. Ensure that adequate buffer strips are retained to protect the coastal zone.
5. Amend existing legislation or introduce new legislation to control the exploitation of all marine organisms that are not presently legally protected.
6. Investigate the impacts of commercial fishery practices on ecosystems, on target, non-target and by-catch species, on the viability of populations, and on genetic diversity.
7. Determine the impact of recreational fishers on fisheries, fish and their habitats, and develop a national strategy and guidelines for managing recreational fishing on an ecologically sustainable basis.
8. Undertake research concerning the management and control of subsistence artisanal fisheries, including the development of appropriate monitoring systems.
9. Determine the impact of mariculture species and management practices on biodiversity, and develop appropriate guidelines for mariculture developments.
10. Develop and promote fishing techniques and procedures that are species and size specific, and that have the least impact on ecosystems and on non-target species.

2.3. LAND-USE PLANNING AND ENVIRONMENTAL ASSESSMENT

Policy objective 2.3.

Integrate biodiversity considerations into land-use planning procedures and environmental assessments.

Land-Use Planning and Environmental Assessment in South Africa

Biodiversity is often adversely affected by planning and development decisions and actions. This may be through a failure to incorporate biodiversity considerations into physical planning documents, such a regional plans and structure plans; through inadequate information and misguided decisions; or because of inappropriate policies. South Africa's history of environmental planning is particularly poor.

These concerns are well recognised in South Africa, and have resulted in the development of a procedure known as Integrated Environmental Management (IEM), a process designed to incorporate the environmental considerations of development proposals within the planning process. Environmental impact assessment (EIA) is a step within the EM procedure, and by international standards, the EIA strategy employed in South Africa is relatively sophisticated. It is holistic and embraces both big-physical and social considerations; requires public participation; provides for the inclusion of environmental concerns early in the planning process; calls for alternative proposals to be considered; and continues through to monitoring, auditing and decommissioning. To this end, EM is a useful tool for minimising the adverse impacts of development on biodiversity.

Despite the sophistication of EIA and IEM procedures in South Africa, there are few legal requirements for their use. Although EIAs are commonly undertaken for large-scale developments, this is on a voluntary rather than a legal basis. One exception, however, is the mining industry, which in terms of the Minerals Act 50 of 1991, is required to operate with approved environmental management programmes.

Many argue that EM procedures are too complex and costly, and overlap with existing planning procedures and permit requirements. Skeptics of the present system also point out that EIAs are severely compromised by being funded and having their terms of reference set by the project proponent. Ideally, EIAs would be mandatory, and as independent as possible. Of concern for biodiversity conservation is the fact that EIAs are often project-based, fail to consider cumulative environmental impacts within the bioregion, and take a piecemeal approach when considering impacts on biodiversity. To overcome these concerns many argue that EIAs should be undertaken not only for projects, but for programmes and policies, and should improve integration between the varied biological assessments often undertaken for a single project.

Policy and Strategy

Government is well aware of the need to review land-use planning and environmental assessment procedures in South Africa. The Department of Environmental Affairs and Tourism has recently published draft regulations concerning the control of activities which may have a detrimental effect on the environment, as well as guidelines for producing comprehensive environmental impact reports. The effectiveness of existing planning controls and the IEM process is also being investigated by the national process to determine a general environmental policy for South Africa.

These initiatives will continue to be supported by Government which, in collaboration with relevant interested and affected parties will:

1. Strongly support the adoption of a bioregional approach to planning for terrestrial, aquatic, and marine and coastal areas, whereby natural boundaries (e.g. catchment areas) are used to facilitate the integration of conservation and development needs, and conservation is proactively incorporated into land-use plans.
2. Support the incorporation of IEM principles and appropriate environmental procedures into all planning controls and legislation.
3. Ensure that potential impacts of projects, programmes, plans and policies on biodiversity are assessed and reflected in planning processes (e.g. town planning and zoning schemes) and environmental assessments, and that decision-making seeks to avoid impacts, to minimise risks, and to mitigate adverse impacts wherever possible.
4. Investigate, formulate and implement integrated land-use planning approaches that include multiple natural resource activities which are compatible with and which complement the conservation and sustainable use of biodiversity.
5. Integrate consideration of the cumulative and secondary impacts on biological diversity of development proposals, and the reversibility of proposed actions over time, into regional planning processes and environmental impact assessment procedures.
6. Ensure that potential impacts of projects, programmes, plans and policies on biodiversity are assessed in an integrated manner and by competent professionals.

2.4. ADOPTING SUSTAINABLE LIFESTYLES

Policy objective 2.4.

Support efforts to stabilise human population and reduce resource consumption to achieve socially and ecologically sustainable development.

Addressing Population and Consumption Issues in South Africa

The preceding steps to achieve the conservation and sustainable use of biodiversity, and to minimise the adverse impacts of activities are necessary, but not sufficient, to address the loss of biodiversity in South Africa. Underpinning the crisis is a complex array of inter-related social, economic, political and demographic factors. These include institutional failures to regulate the use of biological resources; economic systems that fail to recognise the true value of biodiversity; inequity in the ownership, management and flow of benefits from the conservation and use of biological resources; high levels of poverty; and a lack of knowledge about the way in which natural systems function.

Ultimately, however, human impacts on biodiversity depend upon two key factors: the number of people using natural resources; and the rates at which they consume those resources. Increasing human populations and unsustainable rates of resource consumption both lead to a growth in demand for natural resources, and therefore an increase in the impact on biodiversity. Because the natural resource base is limited, it is important to consider ways in which a balance can be struck between the use of resources, and the capacity of ecological systems to renew resources and to absorb wastes.

Population is an important issue in South Africa, but needs to be considered together with questions about resource use, particularly patterns of production and consumption. Global figures indicate that 77% of the world's people earn 15% of total income; that 24% of the world's population consume 75% of energy, mineral and metal resources, and more than half the world's food; and that over 90% of waste in the world is generated by the affluent. Similar figures are not available for South Africa but what is clear is that people's use of resources is very uneven, and that consumption is highest amongst the industrial sector and the more affluent. Strategies thus need to address not only the stabilisation of population growth, but also the wasteful overconsumption of natural resources.

Policy and Strategy

In collaboration with interested and affected parties, Government will:

1. Ensure that considerations relating to the conservation and sustainable use of biodiversity are adequately incorporated into the national policy on population.
   1. Develop comprehensive strategies to address population, production and consumption patterns and their impact upon environmental sustainability; and
   2. Initiate research and establish a dialogue to assess national population and consumption trends, with respect to satisfying basic needs and determining South Africa's capacity to support human settlement.
2. Support initiatives to reduce resource consumption by promoting the elimination or reduction of waste at source, and its re-use, recycling, and recovery.
3. Through a review of the education system, and the use of such mechanisms as the media:
   1. increase awareness about the links between human population growth, resource consumption, and biodiversity;
   2. increase awareness about the lifestyle choices that affect biodiversity, and promote sustainable living based on the opportunities derived from the sustainable use of biological resources.
      
      

Chapter 3 (C)

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10 Data from DEAT, Pretoria, as illustrated in Vegetation of South Africa, Lesotho and Swaziland, edited by A.B. Low and A.G. Rebelo. Published by the Department of Environmental Affairs and Tourism, January 1996.