GOAL 3:
ENSURE THAT BENEFITS DERIVED FROM THE USE AND DEVELOPMENT OF SOUTH AFRICA'S GENETIC RESOURCES SERVE NATIONAL INTERESTS

What are Genetic Resources?

Genetic resources include the diversity of plants, animals, or other organisms of actual or potential value. South Africa both depends upon genetic material from elsewhere and contains an extraordinary diversity of indigenous genetic material which has the potential to be used in a range of commercial and environmental applications. As is the case for other countries in the world, South Africa is heavily dependent upon material from elsewhere for its agriculture, horticulture, and forestry industries, as well as for the biological control of pest species and thus requires continued access to the broader genepool of genetic resources located elsewhere in the world. This requires continued coordination and cooperation with other countries.

There are many different types of genetic resources that may be used for different purposes. For example, categories of plant genetic resources for food and agriculture may include wild species, wild relatives of crop species, landraces, primitive and obsolete varieties, modern varieties, breeding lines and experimental populations, and lines with specific genetic characteristics. Many other types of genetic resources are used for such purposes as pharmaceutical development, traditional medicine, horticulture, personal care and cosmetics, foods or beverages, or environmental remediation.

From Common Heritage to National Sovereignty

Genetic resources have long been traded across the world and used strategically for political and economic gain. Historically, such resources were regarded as the common heritage of humankind, freely accessible to anyone. But two-third's of the world's biological resources are located in developing countries, and most of the benefits derived from commercialisation of these resources have accrued to industrialised countries that possess the necessary financial and technical capacity to develop them. These asymmetries have led to the "common heritage" concept being fundamentally challenged.

Questions that are central to this highly controversial debate are concerned with the ownership of biodiversity; the equitable distribution of benefits derived from the use of biodiversity; and the fair compensation for local and traditional knowledge about biodiversity. How, it is asked, can genetic resources be "free" if pharmaceutical and seed companies are assigning ownership to such resources through intellectual property rights such as patents and plant breeder's rights? Why are the intellectual contributions of traditional healers or farmers not accorded the same significance? How can biologically rich countries from where genetic resources are sourced be compensated for conserving these biotic riches? And why should national sovereignty be recognised for natural resources such as oil and timber, but not for genetic and biochemical resources?

It was within this context that negotiations leading to the Convention on Biological Diversity were framed. The Convention is significant in being the first international agreement to establish the sovereign rights of nations over their genetic resources. Indeed, one of its main objectives is to ensure the fair and equitable sharing of benefits arising from the use of genetic resources. No longer are genetic resources the common heritage of humankind.

Agricultural Biodiversity

This shift towards national sovereignty has important implications for agriculture and forestry given the reliance of countries on introduced crops, and the fact that no country in the world is completely self-sufficient in genetic resources. Although many nations contain significant genetic diversity in genebanks and on farmers' fields, they will still continue to require access to the diversity available elsewhere. This situation is especially pertinent to South Africa, where the agriculture, livestock and forestry industry are predominantly based upon introduced species. Such industries are dependent upon continued access to genetic resources from elsewhere in the world. Also of relevance is the fact that South Africa is a signatory to the International Convention for the Protection of New Varieties of Plants (UPOV), as amended in 1991.

The continued availability of genetic resources for food and agriculture is clearly essential for global food security. The conservation of such resources is also of paramount concern given the alarming rate of loss of plant genetic diversity, and the need for new varieties to meet the food needs of a growing population and the demands of changing agro-ecological and social conditions.

Many national and international institutions and agreements have been established to address these issues. Perhaps most significant was the establishment in 1983 of the intergovernmental Commission on Plant Genetic Resources (now the Commission on Genetic Resources for Food and Agriculture), and adoption of the International Undertaking on Plant Genetic Resources by member countries of the Food and Agriculture Organisation (FAO) of the United Nations. Underpinning the Undertaking is the principle that "plant genetic resources are a heritage of mankind and consequently should be available without restriction", although this principle has been subsequently subjected to "the sovereignty of States over their plant genetic resources".

The thirteen years since the Undertaking's adoption have seen considerable changes in approaches to genetic resources and to issues concerning biodiversity. In addition to the entry into force of the Convention on Biological Diversity, advances in biotechnology and pressures to enact stricter intellectual property legislation have heightened the need to develop a new international regime relating to the management of plant genetic resources for food and agriculture. Presently, the Undertaking is being. revised by the Commission in harmony with the Convention on Biological Diversity. Many have commented on the need for a legally binding multilateral agreement, possibly in the form of a protocol under the Convention. Of relevance is the recent adoption by governments of the Leipzig Declaration and a Global Plan of Action for the Conservation and Sustainable Utilisation of Plant Genetic Resources for Food and Agriculture, negotiated under the auspices of the Food and Agriculture Organisation of the United Nations.

While continued access to resources for food and agriculture is clearly important, the Convention recognises that countries will benefit from their indigenous resources only by some form of controlled access. Thus Article 15 supports the understanding that countries will not "shut the greenhouse door", but will rather "create conditions to facilitate access to genetic resources for environmentally sound uses by other Contracting Parties and not impose restrictions that run counter to the objectives of this Convention".

The Debate about Farmers' Rights

One of the key elements presently being discussed in the revision of the International Undertaking on Plant Genetic Resources concerns that of Farmers' Rights. A 1989 Annex to the Undertaking defines Farmers' Rights as "rights arising from the past, present and future contributions of farmers in conserving, improving and making available plant genetic resources, particularly those in the centres of origin/diversity. These rights are vested in the International Community, as trustee for present and future generations of farmers, for the purpose of ensuring full benefits to farmers, and supporting the continuation of their contributions, as well as the attainment of the overall purposes of the International Undertaking". The Undertaking envisages that such rights be realised multilaterally through an international fund, the proceeds of which could be used to support plant genetic resource conservation and utilisation programmes.

Farmers' Rights are, however, understood in many different ways by governments. Some governments treat Farmers' Rights as a moral principle but with little practical meaning. Others see such rights as a legal tool to share benefits between countries. And others see it as a critical way in which small-scale farmers and farming communities can be empowered to further improve their farming systems and conserve genetic resources. Central to the debate is the development of sui generis systems for the protection and compensation of informal innovations in the area of plant genetic resources, and the protection of the so-called "farmers' privilege" under the International Convention for the Protection of New Varieties of Plants (UPOV). It is argued that the adoption of such measures could ensure that farmers and farming communities share equitably in the benefits derived from the utilisation of their traditional knowledge, innovations and practices.

In South Africa, there has been little discussion on issues related to Farmers' Rights, and policies to process such rights are poorly developed. In addition, scant information exists on the use of indigenous and traditional varieties or landraces. Such plants are still utilised by subsistence farmers and are highly valued as a food source in rural areas, but there are no formal in-situ conservation programmes in place. One of the most immediate needs is to initiate a consultative process with small-scale farmers and other farming communities on the nature and application of Farmers' Rights in the country. This is especially pressing in light of the ongoing negotiations to revise the International Undertaking on Plant Genetic Resources, and the importance of ensuring that such interests are reflected in international negotiations.

What is Biodiversity Prospecting?

With genetic resources no longer the "common heritage" of humankind, increasing attention has been paid to their commercialisation. Biodiversity prospecting refers to the search for commercially valuable genetic and biochemical resources from nature. These could be novel chemicals or genes used to develop new drugs, improve crop yields, or accord pest resistance to plants. Many indigenous species also hold promise for exploitation and commercialisation through domestication (e.g. ornamentals and forages). Resources for biodiversity prospering may originate from plants, marine organisms, insects and other vertebrates, invertebrates, fungi or bacteria.

Considerable controversy surrounds biodiversity prospecting. Some regard it as a panacea for biologically rich, but financially poor countries, and as an incentive for biodiversity conservation. Others consider it with a good deal of suspicion, and see the Convention's provisions to regulate access as an attempt to legitimise continued multinational corporation control of developing country's biological resources. What is becoming increasingly evident is that biodiversity prospering is not a "pot of gold" for countries providing genetic resources. Although the combined world market exceeds 300 billion dollars annually, commercial ventures are risky and costly, and the likelihood of discovering a valuable compound is low. However, with a well considered strategy, biodiversity prospecting can reap benefits for countries rich in genetic diversity, especially with regard to enhancing research capacity an developing technology.

Biodiversity Prospecting in South Africa

South Africa is a favoured destination for "biodiversity prospering" companies seeking potential new crops and novel biochemical molecules with medicinal, agricultural, horticultural, environmental, or other economic potential. This is largely because of the country's high levels of endemism and diversity, comprehensive knowledge base of the fauna and flora, considerable scientific capacity, well-developed infrastructure, and well-managed protected areas and living collections, which enables the reliable sourcing of materials. Presently, a multitude of organisations and individuals are involved in the research and development of our genetic resources, and research institutions are looking towards biodiversity prospering as an important avenue for revenue generation and technology transfer. A range of provincial departments are involved in issuing permits for collecting activities, as are central government agencies. Considerable activity exists outside of this formal network, with daily removals of genetic material out of the country. Of concern is the fact that present activities concerning the export and use of South Africa's biodiversity are virtually uncontrolled, and that commercial exploitation of the country's genetic resources is taking place in a policy and legal vacuum.

3.1. ACCESS TO INDIGENOUS GENETIC RESOURCES

Policy objective 3.1.

Control access to South Africa's indigenous genetic resources through the introduction of appropriate legislation and establishment of institutional structures.

Policy and Strategy

The Convention on Biological Diversity recognises the sovereign rights of countries over their genetic resources, and their authority to determine access conditions, including the sharing of benefits gained. In terms of the Convention, South Africa is required to facilitate access to genetic resources by other Contracting Parties, and to ensure that any genetic resources acquired are on mutually agreed terms.

Government recognises that South Africa's genetic resources provide valuable opportunities for the nation to enhance the benefits from its vast biological wealth. The present situation, whereby foreign organisations and individuals have enjoyed almost free access to our genetic resources with little gain to either the country or the people from whom knowledge is gleaned, is a matter of considerable concern.

It is clearly in South Africa's interest to control access to its genetic resources, and to thereby ensure that benefits arising from the use and development of such resources serve the national good. It is, however, also in South Africa's interest to ensure that access is not unnecessarily restrictive, and that conditions are provided which stimulate economic activity and allow for South Africa's continued access to foreign sources of genetic material. Thus Government will pursue an approach whereby access to South Africa's genetic resources is both controlled and facilitated, in line with certain principles.

To achieve this objective, Government, in collaboration with interested and affected parties, will:

1. (a) As a matter or urgency, and through appropriate structures:

• develop detailed guidelines and conditions for biodiversity prospecting,
• examine the applicability of such guidelines and conditions for domestic and foreign companies;
• guide the development of appropriate agreements;
• investigate the strengthening of existing controls and legislation, including the establishment of national sovereignty over South Africa's biological resources; and
• investigate the establishment of a national clearing house to regulate and administer all exchanges of genetic resources, and to coordinate future activities.

(b) Develop and implement an efficient permitting system whereby authorisation is required for the collection of any biological or genetic resource to be used for research, trade or commercial purposes. This system will include the provision of comprehensive information from users and collectors, including the environmental impact of proposed activities and benefit-sharing arrangements. Where appropriate, the consent of local communities and private landowners will be required prior to the collection of material. Consent will also be required from holders of traditional knowledge prior to the collection of such information.

2. Require that benefit-sharing arrangements take into consideration:

2. the need to strengthen the conservation of biodiversity in South Africa;
3. the need to promote the reconstruction and development of South Africa, and to stimulate economic development in the most disadvantaged parts of the country and sections of the population;
4. the rights of local communities, farmers, and others holding traditional knowledge to benefit from co-ownership of research data, patents, and products derived from their knowledge;
5. the need to adopt a multi-faceted approach to benefit sharing, whereby a range of short- and long-term financial and non-monetary benefits are gleaned; and
6. the need to strengthen South Africa's science and technology capacity.

3. Establish a system to allow for funds generated from biodiversity prospecting to be received and disbursed equitably, in line with the benefit-sharing arrangements articulated in (2) above.

4. Ensure that the collection of biological and genetic resources for research and development purposes does not adversely affect the conservation status of the genes, species, population, community, habitat, ecosystem, or landscape.

5. Promote coordination and cooperation between national research institutions engaged in biodiversity prospecting to enable the South African research community to strategically position the country in this field.

6. Encourage the development of institutional policies and professional codes of conduct to guide collection, research and commercial activities.

7. Investigate, through appropriate structures, the development of a system to provide legal protection for collective intellectual property rights.

3.2. ACCESS TO GENETIC RESOURCES FOR FOOD,AGRICULTURE, AND FORESTRY

Policy objective 3.2.

Ensure continued access to sources of genetic material for food, agriculture, and forestry.

Policy and Strategy

Government is committed to adopting a uniform set of principles to guide the way in which access to genetic resources is controlled, and recognises the importance of maintaining a consistent approach with regard to the implementation of policy for indigenous genetic resources that are used for different purposes. With regard to plant genetic resources, there are presently relatively few wild relatives of commercially produced crop plants that are indigenous to South Africa, but many indigenous species are considered to hold potential for new crops and forages. Indigenous animal and microbial genetic resources may also hold considerable potential for diverse uses.

While embracing a consistent approach to control access to indigenous genetic resources, Government recognises the mutual interdependence of nations on the global genepool of biodiversity, and the need for equitable benefit-sharing - both at the international and national levels. In particular, the development of specific strategies to ensure continued access to genetic resources for food, agriculture, and forestry is considered to be of paramount importance. To this end, Government is actively participating in negotiations to harmonise the International Undertaking on Plant Genetic Resources with the Convention on Biological Diversity, and has also established a Committee on Plant Genetic Resources to consider such matters.

Within this context, Government, in collaboration with interested and affected parties, will:

1. (a) Continue to participate in international negotiations to harmonise the International Undertaking on Plant Genetic Resources and other relevant international agreements with the Convention on Biological Diversity; and

(b) Through appropriate structures and mechanisms, ensure consultation with interested and affected parties in the formulation of national positions on the revision of the International Undertaking on Plant Genetic Resources.

2. (a) Initiate a process of national and local consultation, whereby the South African farming community, and small-scale farmers in particular, fully participate in the shaping, definition, and implementation of measures and legislation on Farmers' Rights;

GOAL 4:
EXPAND THE HUMAN CAPACITY TO CONSERVE BIODIVERSITY, TO MANAGE ITS USE, AND TO ADDRESS FACTORS THREATENING IT

This section describes South Africa's plans to meet requirements of the Convention concerning the expansion of human capacity to conserve biodiversity, to manage its use, and to address threats to it. South Africa's approach towards achieving this goal has three main components:

1. Increasing public appreciation and awareness of the value and importance of biodiversity, and public involvement in its conservation and sustainable use;
2. Improving the understanding of biodiversity through conducting research, improving biological inventories, establishing and maintaining monitoring systems, sharing information, and incorporating traditional knowledge, and;
3. Strengthening existing management capacity through appropriate training.

4.1. PUBLIC EDUCATION AND AWARENESS

Policy objective 4.1.

Increase public appreciation, education and awareness of the value and importance of biodiversity, and public involvement in its conservation and sustainable use.

Policy and Strategy

Without the support and commitment of all South Africans, efforts to conserve this country's biodiversity are unlikely to succeed. Government considers this to be one of the most critical issues to address in the implementation of this policy. Past efforts to improve public awareness and appreciation of the importance of biodiversity have frequently been culturally biased, focusing largely on the value systems of the affluent. Thus a narrow interpretation of biodiversity has predominated, directed at the need to preserve endangered species and maintain protected areas rather than at the broader development context which makes biodiversity relevant to the millions of people in South Africa who are dependent upon the country's biological resources to fulfil their basic needs. This has been aggravated by the inaccessibility of protected areas to the poor, leading to the perception that conservation is elitist and irrelevant to the majority of South Africans.

Government will redress these perceptions so that the conservation and sustainable use of biodiversity becomes an issue of concern and meaning to South Africans of all ages and in all walks of life: from decision-makers in Parliament through to communities in rural areas and youth in the townships. There are already many initiatives underway which support this conviction, both within the formal education sector and informally in the work-place and community.

Government will bolster such efforts and, in collaboration with relevant interested and affected parties, will:

1. Develop and implement targeted public awareness programmes for groups of people such as decision- makers and politicians; business executives; consumers; non-governmental organisations; children; and those in rural and urban areas who are reliant upon the use of biological resources. Such programmes will take into account people's understanding of biodiversity and their local environments, foster an appreciation of local knowledge of biodiversity, establish clear links between biodiversity conservation and community health and welfare, and will describe conservation actions that can be taken by specific groups.
2. Encourage organisations engaged in researching, managing or conserving biodiversity to popularise their work, to disseminate information about biodiversity, and develop or strengthen biodiversity education and interpretative programmes in such places as protected areas, natural history museums, zoos, aquaria, botanical gardens, public open spaces, and community centres.
3. Support the further development of outreach programmes which enable people to have access to nature and the experiences associated with nature.
4. Promote and support efforts by the public and private sector to make protected areas more accessible to the people of South Africa.
5. Encourage those in the public eye, such as television and radio commentators, news editors, advertisers, entertainers, artists, sportsmen and women, religious leaders, politicians, and corporate executives, to popularise biodiversity and the actions needed to conserve it.
6. Use a variety of delivery mediums (e.g. radio, television, newspapers, electronic networks), to distribute information about biodiversity.
7. Integrate issues concerning biodiversity conservation and sustainable use into ongoing efforts to develop a national environmental education system, modifying curricula where necessary.
8. Support and encourage improved training and professional development for teachers, extension officers, and others involved in building awareness about biodiversity.
9. Promote the involvement of interest groups and communities in research, management and development activities relating to the conservation and sustainable use of biodiversity.
10. Strengthen coordination between those involved in increasing awareness about biodiversity, including educational institutions, government departments, natural history museums, businesses, conservation groups and other non-governmental organisations.

4.2. IMPROVING UNDERSTANDING ABOUT BIODIVERSITY

Policy objective 4.2.

Improve the knowledge and understanding of South Africa's biodiversity necessary for its effective conservation.

4.2.1. Research

NOTE: Specific areas of research are identified throughout this document in relevant sections, and for the sake of brevity are not repeated here. See in particular strategies articulated for the policy objectives of Goals 1, 2, 3, 4 and 5.

Policy and Strategy

Considerable investment has been made in biological research in South Africa, resulting in a well- developed knowledge base and understanding concerning aspects of the country's biodiversity. However, Government realises that existing biological knowledge is patchy, and that substantially more research is required to improve our understanding. In particular, the interactions between biological and social processes are poorly understood, as are the causes underlying the decline in biodiversity. There has also been an under-investment in the application of research results to biodiversity management.

Government recognises the importance of both basic and applied research, as well as the difficulties in distinguishing between the two. An approach will be pursued that strikes a balance between both basic and applied research, but which aims to accelerate the translation of research results into applied action, and so promote the conservation and sustainable use of biodiversity. An important part of this approach requires improved coordination and networking within and across disciplines and between different programmes.

To achieve this objective, Government, in collaboration with interested and affected parties, will:

1. Through the establishment and coordination of appropriate structures, and the undertaking of a review of the status quo of research on biodiversity, develop a multidisciplinary national biodiversity research plan, based upon existing gaps in knowledge and identified conservation and management priorities.
2. 1. Encourage researchers to popularise their work and to disseminate information about biodiversity.
   2. Encourage researchers to place relevant biodiversity information and data in the public domain to facilitate informed, strategic decision-making and to optimise the conservation and sustainable use of biodiversity (see also Section 4.2.4).
3. Develop partnerships with the scientific community to facilitate the effective implementation of the goals and objectives articulated by this policy.

4.2.2. Inventories

What are Biodiversity Inventories?

Biodiversity inventorying is the surveying, sorting, cataloguing, quantifying and mapping of landscapes, ecosystems, habitats, populations, species, and genes. Inventories derived from the synthesis of such information give an overview of the state of biodiversity, and enable the identification of key indicators and the analysis of important patterns and processes. Inventories also provide baseline information for the assessment of change and data for conserving and managing biodiversity. Taxonomy, which is the identification, description, classification and naming of organisms, is fundamental to inventorying, and is the core reference system and knowledge base upon which all discussion of biodiversity rests. Biosystematics, which incorporates taxonomy, includes the study of associated biological disciplines such as evolutionary biology and biogeography, and is also an important component of inventorying.

Biodiversity Inventories in South Africa

Inventories are well-established for some ecosystems and species in South Africa, and there are several institutions such as natural history museums and Hebraism dedicated to inventory work. A comprehensive classification of vegetation types exists, as does a computerised database of higher plant species. Inventories of vertebrate species are also fairly comprehensive, particularly within protected areas and for mammals, birds and some fish. However, only a small proportion of the total invertebrate species richness has been described and named, and information on lower plants, microorganisms and genetic diversity is likewise extremely sparse and uncollated. In the marine environment, the taxonomy of fish, and particularly invertebrates, is poorly known.

Inventory work requires skilled personnel such as taxonomists and bio-systematists. There is, however, a dire shortage of suitably trained people in South Africa. There is also inadequate funding support to redress this, and South Africa's museums and other collection-based institutions are facing serious funding problems which threaten existing collections and the future of their professional staff. Many concerns have been expressed by the South African scientific community about this deteriorating situation.

Policy and Strategy

Government recognises that biological inventories are basic to understanding biodiversity. Work being undertaken by universities, natural history museums, technikons, and other collection-based institutions is considered essential to furthering understanding of South Africa's biodiversity and achieving the goals and objectives of this policy. Government is aware of the enormity of comprehensively inventorying the country's biodiversity, and of the significant resources required to undertake this task.

Government's approach to inventorying will be to build and strengthen existing initiatives, link inventory work wherever possible to job creation, use innovative means to accelerate inventory work, and focus inventory efforts on components of biodiversity important for its conservation and sustainable use.

In collaboration with interested and affected parties, Government will:

1. Enhance inventory efforts, giving priority to gaps in knowledge, those components of biodiversity identified as threatened, as well as those components identified to be important for the conservation and sustainable use of biodiversity (See Objective 1.1).
2. Maintain or enhance the capacity of museums and other institutions which undertake biodiversity surveys, and which classify, describe and store collected specimens.
3. Optimise institutional arrangements to ensure that biodiversity inventory work is given the necessary support and commitment by Government.
4. Enhance coordination among government agencies, museums, universities, collection-based institutions, and other organisations and individuals involved with biological inventories.
5. Facilitate the integration of all biosystematic disciplines to ensure that an adequate knowledge base is available for known species.
6. Require foreign and local researchers to lodge voucher specimens or duplicate voucher specimens of all organisms collected or recorded in South Africa with appropriate national collections.
7. Augment local capacity to conduct inventories by:
   1. increasing the number and skill of professional taxonomists; and
   2. encouraging the development and training of community workers ("parataxonomists") to collect and identify specimens, linking such action to the provision of jobs, skills and opportunities for the poor and disadvantaged.
8. Promote the integration of traditional knowledge wherever possible into existing and proposed inventories.
9. Support inventory work as an important benefit to be derived from biodiversity prospecting agreements.
10. Develop rapid, cost-effective and reliable biological inventory methods and technologies.

4.2.3. Monitoring and evaluation

Why Monitor Biodiversity?

Monitoring programmes are required not only to detect and measure changes in biodiversity, but to evaluate the successes and failures of policies, strategies, plans and programmes set up to achieve the conservation and sustainable use of biodiversity. Monitoring is also important to enable those who are custodians of biological resources to take appropriate action to conserve such resources.

Biodiversity Monitoring in South Africa

Many monitoring programmes under way in South Africa are of relevance to the conservation and sustainable use of biodiversity. Several biodiversity monitoring tools are based upon established inventories, including the Red Data Book series, with books on plants, terrestrial mammals, birds, reptiles, amphibians, freshwater fish and butterflies, and the fynbos and karoo biomes; the South African Bird Atlas project; and the Protea Atlas Project. Species-level action plans are additionally being developed at the national, continental and global scale. Several broader environmental monitoring programmes are also under way, including those relating to air and water quality, climatic change, fisheries, land reform, and ecological changes such as fire. These activities are conducted by numerous governmental and non-government agencies, often independently of each other.

Policy and Strategy

Monitoring and evaluation are considered by Government to be essential components of this policy. Numerous programmes are already under way which support this commitment, but there is a need to strengthen these initiatives in line with the objectives of this policy. In particular, Government recognises the need to develop and implement approaches to monitor components of biodiversity considered to require urgent conservation measures and those which offer the greatest potential for sustainable use.

To achieve the objective, Government, in collaboration with interested and affected parties, will:

1. Promote and coordinate the development of international, national, regional and local monitoring programmes and strategies to assess biological trends, the impacts of human activities on biodiversity, and the successes or failures of conservation and sustainable use programmes. Monitoring programmes will, where appropriate:
   1. develop and link up to the development of a national biodiversity information network;
   2. develop and implement cost-effective approaches such as the use of biodiversity indicator groups and other early warning stress indicators;
   3. update and review Red Data books, in line with appropriate international standards; and
   4. track changes in management responses to the conservation and sustainable use of biodiversity.
2. Report on biodiversity trends, as part of "State of Environment" reports.
3. Maintain and strengthen the capacities of institutions engaged in monitoring components of biodiversity, and improve coordination among such bodies.
4. Support efforts to build the capacity and draw on the knowledge of local communities and volunteers with respect to undertaking monitoring exercises.
5. Establish assessment panels or monitoring committees, comprising representatives of nongovernmental organisations, community groups, industry, the scientific community, and government.
6. Support the independent monitoring and evaluation of biodiversity conservation and sustainable use policies, programmes and projects.

4.2.4. Data and information

Policy and Strategy

A substantial amount of data and information that is necessary for the conservation of biodiversity and the sustainable use of biological resources exists in South Africa. This is held by many governmental and non- governmental agencies in herbaria or museum collections, on electronic databases, and in libraries or other resource centres. However, much of this information is in a form which cannot be easily used by managers, researchers, decision-makers or the general public. The situation is aggravated by the fact that many of the initiatives to collect data and information on biodiversity are uncoordinated. Government will take measures to redress this situation and to improve the accessibility of data and information for those who need it.

To achieve the objective, Government, in collaboration with interested and affected parties, will:

1. Investigate and implement the development of a national biodiversity information network to enhance the collection, sharing, analysis and distribution of data and information required for the conservation and sustainable use of biodiversity.
2. Establish a national focal point within the Department of Environmental Affairs and Tourism to act as a clearing house for technical and scientific information relating to the conservation and sustainable use of biodiversity.
3. Ensure that data and information generated by publicly funded studies is made available to potential users through appropriate arrangements. Such arrangements will take into account the need for differential access to information, and will distinguish between information required for research purposes and that which could be used for commercial gain.
4. Maintain, improve and wherever possible standardise and digitise existing biodiversity databases.
5. Support the establishment or strengthening of local resource centres to make information on biodiversity more accessible, usable, and locally relevant.

4.2.5. Traditional knowledge

South African Traditional Knowledge

South Africa has a vast traditional knowledge of biodiversity which has developed over millennia. Sadly, much of this knowledge has been fractured by South Africa's colonial and apartheid past ant by increased urbanisation, and today only pockets of traditional knowledge still exist, generally amongst older people in rural areas and traditional healers.

Customary practices to maintain or enhance biodiversity have similarly been impacted by previous policies, particularly in instances where people were forcibly removed from their land and denied access to resources such as medicinal and edible plants, thatching grass, and hunting and grazing grounds. Past policies also resulted in the banning of traditional medicine, despite the fact that over 80% of South Africans depend upon traditional herbal remedies for their primary health care.

An issue of particular contention relates to the fact that the considerable benefits which modern society has gained from the traditional knowledge and innovations of South Africa's people have resulted in few, if any, of such benefits being returned to the people from whom knowledge was derived. Indigenous knowledge of plants and their patterns of use assisted colonial botanists in South Africa to identify species of commercial potential, the benefits of which were reaped solely by foreign companies. There is currently substantial interest from foreign companies in the genetic resources of South Africa, and firm evidence that sampling guided by traditional knowledge substantially increases the efficiency of screening plants for medicinal treatments. However, there is no legal protection in South Africa for traditional knowledge, which is often not confined to a single community or person. Furthermore, conventional intellectual property right regimes do not correspond well to the innovations of traditional cultures.

There is therefore a clear need to strengthen traditional knowledge, practices and cultures by protecting and recognising the value of such systems and preventing their loss. This may be achieved by ensuring that benefits arising from the innovative use of traditional knowledge of biodiversity are equitably shared with those from whom knowledge is gleaned, and also by incorporating traditional knowledge and practices into biodiversity research and conservation programmes.

Policy and Strategy

Government recognises the irreplaceable and unique value of the traditional knowledge, practices and cultures of South Africa's people, and is acutely concerned about the rapid loss of such systems. The need to formally recognise and protect traditional knowledge is considered to be an issue which needs urgent attention. The adoption of measures to enable equitable benefit-sharing is a crucial part of this approach, as described for Goal 3.

To respond to these concerns, Government, in collaboration with interested and affected parties, will:

1. -
   1. Review and where appropriate modify national policies and legislation to ensure that they support the rights of holders of traditional knowledge;
   2. Investigate, through appropriate structures, the development of a system to provide legal protection for collective intellectual property rights; and
   3. Explore further mechanisms to protect traditional knowledge, practices and cultures concerning the conservation and sustainable use of biodiversity.
2. -
   1. Promote the development of a code of ethics for researchers engaged in work concerning traditional knowledge, practices and cultures;
   2. Ensure that information concerning traditional knowledge, practices and cultures is used for research only with the consent, cooperation and control of holders of that knowledge. Wherever possible, the use and collection of such knowledge must result in social, economic or environmental benefits to the traditional owners through formal prior informed consent procedures and mutually agreed terms;
   3. Encourage, with the consent and involvement of those from whom knowledge is gleaned, the recording of traditional knowledge, practices and cultures concerning the conservation and sustainable use of biodiversity; and
   4. Ensure that this recorded knowledge is made accessible to those people from whom it is gleaned.
3. Ensure that curricula promote an understanding and appreciation of the importance of knowledge, practices and cultures that promote the conservation and sustainable use of biodiversity.
4. Promote the integration of traditional knowledge and in particular previously ignored and/or undermined cultural knowledge and practices concerning the conservation and sustainable use of biodiversity into scientific research programmes and formal sector innovations.

4.3. DEVELOPING MANAGEMENT CAPACITY

Policy objective 4.3.

Enhance the capacity necessary to conserve and use South Africa's biological diversity sustainably

Biodiversity Capacity Needs in South Africa

A major constraint to the implementation of South Africa's biodiversity policy is the dearth of trained South Africans to carry out the tasks required, and a lack of available career opportunities in biodiversity management. A strong cadre of natural scientists exists in South Africa, but few researchers are exposed to the practical problems of management, or have the breadth of knowledge required to address biodiversity conservation problems. There is also a dire shortage of taxonomists in the country. The situation is further aggravated by the fact that the recruitment of black South Africans to the conservation sector has been poor, largely as a result of previous discriminatory policies, and the restricted career opportunities offered by the sector. The lack of capacity to implement conservation measures is particularly stark at the local level where many of the actions to remedy biodiversity loss will be required.

Policy and Strategy

NOTE: Specific training needs are identified throughout this document in relevant sections, and for the sake of brevity are not repeated here. See in particular strategies articulated for

Objectives 1.4, 1.8, 2.2, 4.1, 4.2, and 6.

Government is committed to human resource development and to providing training and developing skills required for biodiversity management. Training will be done in partnership with educational institutions, the private sector and non-governmental organisations, and will be provided in formal institutions, at the workplace through in-service training programmes, and at a local level. Training is recognised as important not only for those charged with managing the use of natural resources, but for senior decision- makers, industrialists, and local communities.

To achieve this, Government, in collaboration with interested and affected parties, will:

1. Encourage a review and reorientation of the curricula of existing training programmes concerning biodiversity conservation and human interactions with the natural environment, with particular emphasis on multidisciplinary approaches.
2. Support the development of short-term training courses in biodiversity management tailored to the needs of particular groups such as business, communities, teachers, resource managers, non-governmental organisations, and senior decision-makers.
3. Prevent the loss of skilled expertise from the field of biodiversity management, maintain existing skills and expertise, and improve the capacity of public servants, non-governmental organisations, and communities to conserve and sustainably use biodiversity.
4. Develop strategies to improve training and professional development in careers compatible with the conservation and sustainable use of biodiversity.
5. Provide incentives to attract qualified individuals to careers in biodiversity management by ensuring that biodiversity management offers a coherent career path, with specific emphasis on the training of people from disadvantaged communities.
6. Support existing institutions that provide training for biodiversity management, with specific emphasis on those institutions that have historically been denied opportunities.
   
   

Chapter 3 (D)