Air

Air Pollution

Air quality is affected by economic activities which introduces pollutants into the atmosphere that pose threats to human health and other life forms on earth. It furthermore have the potential to change the climate with unpredictable, but potentially sever consequences on a local and global scale. Because large bodies of air cannot be contained, atmospheric pollution can only be controlled at source.

At present there is no comprehensive information on air quality or on the levels of emissions entering the atmosphere from different sources. Major areas of concern are high levels of smoke and other pollutants in poorer urban and rural households without electricity and the impacts of the mining, energy, mineral and petro-chemical industries on air quality standards (Environmental Management policy for South Africa)

INTRODUCTION

Air pollution is a major environmental problem through the whole of South Africa. South Africa derives 83 % of its energy from coal (a non-renewable resource), and most air pollution problems thus result from man’s pattern of energy production. Table 1 shows the extent of air pollution in South Africa, Gauteng and the GJMC.

Table 1: Air pollution (ton/year)

POLLUTANT	SOUTH AFRICA	GAUTENG	JOHANNESBURG
CO₂	333 000 000
SO₂	1 950 000
DUST	427 000
NO	720 000
CO	372 000
CFC	13 000
HYDROCARBONS

The worst part of air pollution in South Africa is the Eastern Highveld of Mpumalanga (former Eastern Transvaal Highveld). It covers an area of 30 000 km²and is home to 10 ESKOM power stations, of which 5 are the biggest in the world. The 3 main power stations, Matla, Duvha and Arnot produce 860 tons of SO₂ per km² per year. The area also contains coal mines, Sasol petrochemical plants and other industries. The major dust dome in South Farce is the Vaal Triangle to the south of Gauteng.

With the worst polluted areas in the GJMC is the Highveld area around Johannesburg due to the combustion of fuels for the generation of electricity, and Soweto, due to the burning of coal for space heating and cooking. In the winter smoke and SO₂ from townships are the main air polluters, while vehicles and industries contribute throughout the year.

Factors influencing the pollution problem in SA/GJMC:

Seasonal patterns

Unstable air circulates and dilutes pollutants in summer due to the low pressure over the land.
In winter there is a high pressure over the country and pollutants are trapped in stable air and not diluted or transported.
Temperature inversions
In the winter warm air rises from artificially heated cites or valley sides. Cold night air moves in below the hot air, and temperature thus rises with height, called a low-level inversion. Pollutants are trapped in the cold layer by the warmer air above and can not be diluted. Low level inversion of hundreds of meters deep commonly occur over Johannesburg in the winter.
Even if the pollutants manage to escape the low-level inversion they still get trapped in high level inversions, which occur when cooler rural air moves in beneath warmer city air. These inversions commonly occur over GJ at a height of 1 200 – 1 600m above the ground.

Height above sea level – due to GJ being about 1 600 – 2000 m above sea level, no effective combustion can take place. This is because of the fact that only a fifth of the oxygen of the coast occurs here in the Highveld.

Wind speed and direction influences the rate and dilution of pollutants.
The higher the plumes and stacks, the better the diffusion of pollutants, especially if it is above the inversion layer.

Overview of Air Pollution in Greater Jhb Metro Council

Driving force	Pressure	Impact	State	Response
Industry	Heavy metals Tocixs chlorinated organics CO O3 HC NO2 Lead	Major health impacts	JHB CBD As well as high lebels of CO at City Deep	Inadequate infomration.
Transportation	CO CO2 HC NO Particulate matter Lead	Major health impact Carcenogenic Mutagenic	JHB CBD Indicate increase in air pollution related to transportation and burning of coal	Unleaded fuel Public transport system Promotion of cycling and cycling path
Fossil fuels	CO CO2 Particulate matter NO2 SO2 Smoke	Formation of acid rain Respiratory illness	Informal Settlements for cooking and heating and in electrification areas for cooking.	Appropriate technology towards electrification
Mine dumps	TSP		CBD	Stabalisation of ground and improved mine dump management. Grassing of mine
Burning of waste	TSP	Major health impact especially burning of tyres.		Adequate waste management services
Untarred roads	Particulate Matter			Tarring of roads

Driving forces

Air pollution is the transfer of harmful amounts of natural and synthetic materials into the atmosphere as a direct or indirect action of human activity. Air pollution can be divided into mobile and stationary sources. Mobile sources include transportation such as automobiles, busses, trains and aeroplanes whereas stationary sources include factories, incinerators and electric power plants. (Fuggle R.F., Rabie M.A. 1992 : 601) Air pollution in GJMC constitute a number of driving forces from human activities namely:

Burning of solid waste

The burning of refuse is very dangerous, as it is a combination of many materials made up of different chemicals. For example burning of plastic release toxic chemicals harmful to health.

Transportation

Transportation systems such as automobiles are the biggest cause of air pollution especially in Greater Johannesburg, due to the incomplete combustion of fossil fuels. Exhaust fumes from engines release different kinds of harmful pollutants, the main being carbon monoxide. Traffic give off nitrous oxides and hydrocarbons forming ozone, which cause photochemical smog. Of particular importance is the emission of diesel from heavy-duty vehicles as their maintenance is often a problem.

The GJMC contains over 6 700km of tarred roads and 650km of untarred roads. The public transport system consist of rail 45%, bus 26% and minibus taxi 29%

Technical summary of various features within and between transport in Johannesburg

Features	Rail	Bus	Minibus Taxi
Modal split	45%	26%	29%
Soweto	13%	30%	56%
CBD	25%	30%	45%
Air pollution (100 000 passengers over 10kms)	Least polluting (indirect)	Direct – 59% of minibus taxi	Direct- 33% of car
Energy efficiency (MJ per pass. Km)	Least energy (coal) 0,01-0,52	Crude oil 0,27-1,65	Crude oil 0,42-4,2

NMLC LDO, 1997

Transport mode to work: taxi 55%, bus 12%, and train 10% and car 3%. Car ownership 26% of the 718 500 population have cars,

Domestic sources of air pollution

Economic progress normally constitute a development through what is called the "fuel ladder" where communities start of by using coal, paraffin, LPG gass and eventually electricity moving through the transitional fuel process. The various development patterns within the South African context has given rise to the utilization of all the abovementioned fuels for cooking and heating either as one or a combination of them. The fuel being used is influenced by the economic status of a community or individual. This then constitute a range of environmental impacts in terms of environmental quality, environmental health and sustainable use of non-renewable energy resources. A study conducted by Graham et, al highlighted the emissions and cost effectiveness of traditional and transitional household fuel burning appliance in South Africa. This study is of particular relevance in relation to the number of informal settlements within the Greater Jhb Metro Council.

A study conducted by Terreblanche indicate the health implications of coal burning indoors.

Maximum hourly averages for specific pollutants measured indoors in coal using households during the winter of 1992
Polutants	Concentration ppm	Sample	Hourly health standard
SO2	3.28	15	0.4
NO2	0.46	15	0.6
CO	145.0	15	35

Mining

Mining processes are mainly responsible for air pollution in the form of dust, especially where these mines are not covered with vegetation.

Industries

These contribute significantly to air pollution as industries give off various types of pollutants, for example plants that produce aluminium discharge ammonia, hydrocarbons, organic acids and sulfur oxides. The level of air pollution from industry depend on the distance from the industry, the properties of the chemical, the local topography and the atmospheric conditions. The direction, distance and speed of air and in turn the dispersion of air pollutants are influence by the direction, distance and speed that the air mass travel (Gauteng SoeR).

Total number of industries in NMLC = 1 040 as per the NMLC LDO’s

Classes of air pollutants typically emitted by type of industries

	CO₂	NO_x	SO₂	Dust	Metals	VOCs	Inorganics	Dioxins
Iron and Steel	*		*	*
Power generation	*	*	*	*
Commodity Chemical					*	*	*
Automobile & other metal handling					*	*
Cement	*			*				*
Petrochemical	*					*	*

Power stations

Power stations are mostly related to the emission of fossil fuel air pollution. Electricity itself is very clean but the production of electricity can have very bad impact on the environment. The mostly polluted substance in the generation of electricity is coal. Power stations are also responsible for sulphur dioxide in the atmosphere which in turn impact negatively on our health and the environment.

Indoor Air Pollution

Indoor air pollution include chemical sprays, household products such as paint strippers, cigarette smoke and various building materials. Infectious agents such as viruses and bacteria may also be more concentrated indoor especially where overcrowding exists. Sick building syndrome another cause of air pollution especially in buildings with a lack of fresh air.

Population growth

GJMC currently has a population of ____, which could double in the next 25 years. An increase in the affluence of middle to higher income sector is associated with higher use of natural resources namely energy. In contrast to this is the poor population with ineffective urban management and provision of municipal services, which result in significant local degradation of the environment (LDO SMLC, 1997)

The population growth within different areas and energy consumption patterns can serve as an indication of the impact of population growth on the environment and health.

Total number of consumers is 27 952 (including Randburg and Sowerto excluding the old JHB area) as obtained from the NMLC accounts department on 27 January 1997.

	Randburg Admin		JHB area incorportated in the NMLC
	Consumers	Consumptions (kWh)	Consumers	Consumptions (kWh)
Domestic	25 854	30 003 136	35 410	53 0 69
Commerical	1 636	3 834 466	3 655	999 29
Industrial	462	23 972 293	353	433 182 43

Source NMLC LDO

Pressures

Pressures are meassured according to the common air pollutants which are

meassured against guidelines and standards table _ and _ which in turn

determine the impact on the environment and on health.

Carbon monoxide (CO)

Is released mostly by incomplete combustion processes from motor vehicles and burning of coal and wood as well as cigarette smoke?

Suspended particles

From burning fossil fuels, agriculture, untarred roads as well as mine dust.

Mostly from sprays, mists, dust, grinding activities and land clearing

Sulfur dioxide (SO₂)

Mostly from incomplete combustion of coal and oil as well as petroleum refining, metal smelting and paper making and various other industrial processes. Sulphur dioxide is also known as classical smog. The measurements of SO₂were discontinued for the last 6 or 7 years due to low readings. However the Soiling Index is still measured in Fordsburg and the Traffic Headquarters.

Nitrogen Dioxide (NO₂)

Mostly from automobile engines, fossil fuel combustion and a by-product in manufacturing of fertilizers.

Hydrocarbons(HC)

Mostly from vehicles and industrial processes

Heavy Metals include lead, mercury and cadmium

Lead is mostly of the combustion of petrol, paint and lead smelting operations

Mercury is mostly from paper, chemical and paint manufacturing as well as pesticides and fungicides.

Photo-Chemical smog

Photo-chemical smog (O₃, NOx, CH₄, and Non-CH₄ HC) are pollutants found in urban areas as a result of motor vehicles and stationary sources

Methane ( CH₄)

CH4 is measured at landfill sites on a monthly or bi-monthly basis

AMBIENT AIR QUALITY STANDARDS AND GUIDELINES (ppm)
POLLUTANT	1 HOUR AVERAGE				DAILY AVERAGE				MONTHLY AVERAGE
	us	us	who	sa	us	us	who	sa	us	us	who	sa
	aqs	epa			aqs	epa			aqs	epa
OZONE	0.12	0.12	0.1	0.12			0.05	0.05				0.03
NO2		0.25	0.21	0.5			0.08	0.1				0.08
NO2				0.9				0.3				0.2
CO	35		25		9		9
NON-CH4		0.24		0.4				0.2				0.15
HYDROCARBONS
PM10(ug/m3)					150	150	70

South Africa and World Healht Organisation Ambient Air Quality Guidelines

Pollutant	Symbol	Guideline (SA)	Guideline (WHO)
Oxides of nitrogen	NOx	0.200 ppm
Nitrogen dioxide	NO2	0.05 ppm	150 ug/m3
Nitric oxide	NO	0.150 ppm
Ozone	O3	0.010 ppm
Sulphur dioxide	SO2	0.030ppm
Non-methande hydrocarbons	Non-CH4 HC	0.060 ppm
Lead	Pb	1 ug/m3	1 ug/m3
Smoke		100 um/m3
Total suspended particles	TSP		150 ug/m3

Impact

Due to the far reaching impact of air pollution on the enviornment and in turn the ecological status make it a key concern.

Plants are more sensitive than humans and animals to the effects of air pollution. The three most important pollutant are ozone (O3), sulphur dioxide (SO2) and nitrogen dioxide (NO2), with a greater impact on annual crops than perennial crops. Gauteng State of the environment report highlighted the most significant air quality issues as follows:

Global warming due to the generation of greenhouse gases such as carbon dioxide, ozone and methane
Acid deposition where sulfate and nitrates in the atmosphere are deposited in rain, mist or through dry deposition. Acid deposition can lead to the salination and acidification of water resources and of soil.
Salination of water resources is caused by the accumulation of sulphates and nitrates on the land surface, and their transport into dams and lakes.
Sulphates and nitrates can strip the soil of base cations and increase soil acidity. Concentrations of toxic metals in the soil solution may increase which can impact on plant growth.

	Source	Environment	Health
Ozone (O3)	Action of sunlight on NO₂	Contribute to greenhouse gasses Damage to crops, trees,	Asthma Bronchitis Irritation to the eyes and mucous membranes Headaches Nose&throat irritation
Lead	Transportation industry	Toxic to animals	Reduce birth weight and lowered intelligence
Carbon dioxide			Reduction in the ability of the circulatory system to transport O2 Impairment of performance on tasks requiring attention Aggravation of cardiovascular disease
Suspended particles		Main source of haze that reduces visibility	Damage lung tissues causing respiratory disease
Suklphur dioxide		Ingredient in acid rain which can damage trees and lakes. Can also reduce visibility.	Causes constriction of the airways in people with asthma, repeated exposure causes a condition similar to bronchitis. Increase risk of acute respiratory disease
.Nitrogen	Burning of fossil fuels especially motor vehicles	Is an ingredient of acid rain which can damage trees and lakes	Can irritate the lungs, aggravate the condition of people suffering from asthma or chronic bronchitis
Hydro Carbons			. Can cause some defects if babies during pregnancy or cancer.
Particulate matter			Aggravate bronchitis and asthma
Heavy metals			Health Heavy metals can cause cancer, defects in babies during pregnancy and Lead – Neurocognitive and neuromotor impairment

STATE OF AIR POLLUTION

Air pollution in GJ differs according to area. In poor residential areas like Soweto, Westbury, Riverlea, Eldorado Park, Orange farm and Alexandra, coal and wood burning for space heating and cooking is the major source of smoke and SO₂ pollution. In urban areas around the CBD and higher income areas such as Sandton, Randburg, Melville and Southgate, lead from vehicle emissions and dust from mines cause pollution. In the inner city, SO₂and O₃levels are especially high in winter. In urban areas and the inner city, TSP is also high due to exhaust emissions and resuspendid dust from vehicles. All pollution levels rise in the winter due to pollutants from vehicle emissions, coal fires, industries and mining areas being trapped close to the surface by temperature inversion layers. Circulation patterns over South Africa in the winter also do not disperse pollutants in a wavelike fassion as in summer.

A selected measurement of air pollution has been done in the old Johannesubrg City Council area

JOHANNESBURG AIR QUALITY DATA : ANNUAL AVERAGES IN PARTS PER MILLION (ppm)
station	year	oxides of nitrogen	nitrogen dioxide	nitric oxide	ozone	carbon monoxide	sulphur dioxide	non-methane hdrocarbons
City Hall	1982*	0.054	0.023	0.047	0.008	0.138
(urban)	1983*	0.042	0.022	0.027	0.015	0.755		0.296
	1984*	0.055	0.022	0.032	0.018	0.419		0.223
	1985*	0.053	0.023	0.026	0.021	0.565		0.300
	1986	0.046	0.020	0.023	0.026
	1987*	0.035	0.019	0.014	0.031	0.500
	1988*	0.056	0.024	0.032	0.013			0.079
	1989*	0.084	0.034	0.049	0.016			0.146
	1990	0.058	0.022	0.035	0.018			0.291
	1991	0.076	0.030	0.045	0.017	2.720		0.224
	1992	0.075	0.029	0.046	0.017	2.620		0.179
	1993	0.062	0.026	0.037	0.018	1.660		0.125
	1994*	0.057	0.021	0.034	0.015	1.600		0.161

Newtown	1995	0.098	0.033	0.063	0.012	2.330
(urban)	1996	0.082	0.028	0.053	0.013	2.510		0.189

South Hills	1984	0.120	0.100	0.020	0.037	0.491
(suburban)	1985	0.010	0.009	0.003	0.027	0.600
	1986	0.011	0.009	0.003	0.016
	1987	0.010	0.009	0.003	0.018
	1988	0.025	0.019	0.010	0.029			0.303
	1989	0.014	0.009	0.005	0.031			0.186
	1990	0.023	0.011	0.012	0.033			0.154
	1991	0.016	0.011	0.005	0.031			0.083
	1992	0.024	0.016	0.008	0.032
	1993				0.031
	1994				0.029		0.006
	1995		0.012		0.027		0.006
	1996		0.013		0.028		0.006

Fordsburg	1994						0.007
(urban)	1995		0.021				0.008
	1996		0.031				0.008

Municipal	1994						0.007
Destructor	1995		0.014				0.007
(urban)	1996		0.013				0.006

City Deep	1996*				0.024	1.160
Industrial

Northern	1985*	0.015	0.008	0.007	0.033			0.329
Works	1986*	0.017	0.011	0.007	0.022			0.200
(s-rural)	1987	0.023	0.010	0.015	0.011			0.237
	1988*	0.022	0.008	0.015	0.018			0.262
	1989*	0.024	0.013	0.012	0.015			0.283

Rondebult	1985*				0.030
(suburban)	1986*				0.019
	1987*				0.017
* = low data recovery

ANALYSIS OF AIR POLLUTION ACCORDING TO MAJOR SOURCES

The worst affected area is around the JHB CBD, which includes the industrial areas from Denver in the east to Industrial North and West in the west. These industries also lie mostly along the main rail commuter ways, which increases pollution due to vehicle emissions. Traffic also converges in the CBD from the rest of GJ during daytime. Morning and afternoon pollution levels along major roads coming in and going out of the CBD are thus bad, with high primary (NO, CO and hydrocarbons) and secondary (ozone and NO₂) pollutant levels.

_{The New Town monitoring station that represents the
urban and commercial CBD shows an increase in average annual ozone levels from 0,012 to
0,013PPM, as well as CO levels from 2,33 to 2,51PPM during 1995/1996. A rise in ozone
levels of 2-3PPB/y is estimated in the inner city. Carbon monoxide (CO) levels at New Town
is also much higher than at the other 3 monitoring stations, mainly due to vehicle
emissions, and exceeds the national guideline of ______ during winter. New Town further
shows a decrease in NO_x, NO₂ and NO annual averages from 1995-1996
(GJMC Photochemical Smog Monitoring Program, 1996). Hourly averages of non-methane
hydrocarbons at New Town show an increase in winter. Levels rose from no exceeding of the
SA average hourly limit (0,4PPM) in January 1999, to 7 exceeding in February, 21 in March,
34 in April, 46 in May, 92 in June and 54 in July. This is due to the increase in coal
fires, as well as seasonal circulation patterns and temperature inversion level, which
occur in autumn and winter.
Pollution in the CBD is further affected by wind blown dust from the
mining belt, which increases TSP levels. Dust levels, measured as particulate matter (PM10
of size 10 um in ug/m³) exceeded the average daily guideline at New Town once
in Feb 99, twice in April, 15 times in May, 10 times in June and 4 times in July 1999.
This underlines the fact that winter circulation patterns in South Africa do not disperse
pollutants, as well as the role of inversion layers.

To the south of the CBD through to Southgate, pollution comes mainly from the mining
belt, as well as big industrial areas such as City Deep, Booysens, Electron, Tuusa Park
and Aeroton. The City Deep (industrial) monitoring station shows the second highest levels
of CO after New Town, Vehicle emissions and rubbish burning also affects this area. At the
South Hills (suburban/residential) monitoring station, ozone levels are much
higher than at the other stations, and exceed the national average of _____ during winter.
This may be due to the fact that > 91% of the population here uses gas as a source of
lighting, The burning of petroleum gas, as well as other fossil fuels increase primary and
secondary (ozone) pollutants. The industries surrounding the area worsen the situation.

Annual average ozone levels decreased from 1984-1986 from 0,037PPM to
0,016PPM, the steadily increased to 0,033PPM in 1990, and has since decreased and levelled
out around 0,028PPM. Annual average NO₂levels at South Hills dropped from
0,1PPM in 1984 to 0,02PPM in 1985, and have since mainly fluctuated around this level.
Annual average SO₂levels have been fluctuating around 0,006PPM.

Air quality in the whole area surrounding Soweto is bad, where excessive amounts of coal
is being burned. The worst affected areas are Diepkloof, northwest of Soweto, the whole
area from Devland to Nancefield southeast of Soweto, where industries and informal
settlements play a role, and the informal settlements from Klipspruit to Protea South. Use
of energy rises here from June to September, concentrations are only dilutes after the
spring rains and when summer wind circulation patterns return. That explains why the
national guideline for particulate matter (mostly smoke) is exceeded 20-30% of the (in the
winter months) in these coal burning residential areas. Dust from untarred roads, refuse
burning and bad odour from the Goudkoppies Landfill site, the Orlando Power station and
informal industries also contribute to air pollution.

According to UNEP (1996) the coarse fraction of particulate matter
(15>PM<2,5um) is the highest at lowest elevation sites and informal shanty areas in
Soweto, where population densities are the highest and coal burning is excessive. Levels
are the highest at Dhlamini, Jabavu and Chiawelo, which are at low to middle elevation,
and low to middle socio-economic status. Levels are the lowest at Diepkloof and
Meadowlands to the north, which have a middle-high elevation and middle to high
socio-economic status (Sithole et.al., 1994, in UNEP, 1996). The particulate matter is
derived from coal burning, dust, garbage burning (lead, nickel, copper, zinc), vehicles
(lead), biomass burning and secondary production of sulphates.

In the formal residential areas of Lenasia and Ennerdale, and the informal settlements
of Zakariyya Park, Vlakfontein, Elandsfontein and Lawley, pollution comes mainly from dust
from untarred roads, rubbish and coal burning, and light industries. The worst areas are
the informal settlements of Zakariyya Park, Thembelihle, Vlakfontein and Hospital Hill
south of Lenasia, where excessive coal burning takes place. The Grasmere, Finetown and
Weilers Farm areas east of Ennerdale, also burn excessive amounts of coal, and also lie
next to the N1 and other major roads where vehicle emissions play a role. In the southern
most part of the SMLC pollution is bad at the Poortjie settlement and to the east of
Orange Farm. Excessive amounts of coal burning, vehicle emissions and dust from gravel
roads and open/farming land are the causes.

^{In the south of the WMLC (north of Soweto) dust from gravel and mine dumps (especially
Doornkop) roads, and smoke and CO from coal burning pollutes the air. West of Roodepoort
the Roodepoort West industrial area, CBD activities, dust from mine dumps, and excessive
coal burning in informal settlements contribute to bad air pollution.

In the NMLC pollution levels in the formal residential areas are much lower due to
little use of coal. Problem areas exist in the Randburg and Sandton CBD’s mostly due
to vehicle emissions, light industries and commercial activities. The Wynberg/Kew
industrial area west of Alexandra causes pollution as well as the informal settlements in
the area, where moderate to excessive amounts of coal is used, and increases SO₂levels
especially in the winter months. In the northern parts of the NMLC the informal
settlements of Diepsloot, Rietvallei and Zevenfontein use excessive amounts of coal which
causes pollution. The Northern Works (sub-rural) monitoring station at the
Northern sewage works, show a slight increase in annual levels of NO_x
(0,015-0,024PPM), NO₂(0,008-0,013PPM) and NO (0,002-0,012PPM) from 1985-1989,
whiles a decrease in ozone (0,033-0,015PPM) and hydrocarbons (0,329-0,283PPM) where shown
(GJMC Photochemical Smog Monitoring Program, 1996).

CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATIONS

The major sources of air pollution over GJ are thus vehicle emissions, dust from mine
dumps and untarred roads, excessive burning of coal especially in informal settlements,
industries and CBD activities.
Very little and incomplete information exist on air pollution and only limited
monitoring is done.
The bad 1950-dust pollution problem from sand and slimes dumps was only partially solved
due to planting of surface covers like indigenous grasses and reeds. New mine dumps and
the reprocessing of slimes, are aggravating the problem.

Pollution from incomplete combustion of fossil fuels in vehicles is a
problem that will only get worse due to the rising prices of new vehicles, and the
increasing amount of old and poorly maintained vehicles on roads. More private vehicles,
because of worse public transport will also increase air pollution.

STATE
ON AIR QUALITY MANAGEMENT PROGRAMME IN GREATER JHB METRO COUNCIL AS IN 1994
Air quality management capability is the capacity to generate and utilize appropriate
air quality information within a coherent administrative and legislative framework: to
enable the rational management of air quality. The components of air quality management
capability are therefore: the human, technical and financial resources required to provide
useful information on the sources, current concentrations, impacts and trends of ambient
air pollution; and, the regulatory and administrative framework required to formulate,
implement and enforce emission controls. It is therefore the process by which air quality
is assessed and response strategies developed and introduced. (UNEP, 1996)
To assess the capability of an air quality management plan it is necessary to answer
three key questions:

Has the air quality objectives been stated and are they realistic and appropriate
To what extent is information required for decision makers to develop management
strategies available to them; being used in the most effective manner; and of adequate
quality for its intended use?
Is there an administrative and legislative framework to ensure that emission control
strategies will be implemented and enforced.

Air Quality Management Capability Indicators
In assessing the capability of an air quality management plan it is important to make
use of indicators. The target audience for indicators in this case would be decision
makers concerned with the air quality in GJMC. The indicators are intended as an aid for
decision makers to identify deficiencies in the capabilities of the air quality monitoring
programme.
In the study four sets of indicators (indices) have been developed to represent the
principle components of management capability namely:
Criteria for indicator development
Each of the four indexes consists of a number of component indicators
to determine if the city has any useful capacity with respect to a particular element of
management capability. Indicators were quantified by allocating points for each indicator
question with a difference in weighing of points based on the importance of the
capability. The total number of indicator points available in each component index is 25.
These then were grouped into bands of air quality management capability. The indicator
questions developed and applied represent the minimum capability required to generate air
quality information useful for decision-makers, which result in minimum useful capability.

State of Air pollution monitoring within Greater Jhb Metro Council

Air quality measurement capacity index
Assessing the ambient air monitoring taking place in a city, as well as accuracy,
precision and representativeness of the data produced.
Monitoring objectives

Estimate health and ecosystem impact in order to identify likely consequences
Determine compliance with legislation and policy regarding air quality standards
Provide public information
Generate information for the formulation of air quality management strategies and to
monitor the progress of the plans once implemented.}}

MONITORING NETWORKS AND OBJECTIVES

Activity	Present
Network present	No
Estimate exposure	No
Compliance	No
Public information	No
Forecasting	No
Spacial distribution	No

Air quality measurement and methodologies

Number of sampling instruments for each compound monitored

NO₂	SO₂	PM	CO	O₃	Pb
1	1	3		1	3

Number of passive, active and continious sampling instruments in JHB

NO₂

SO₂

O₃

P = passive A = active C = continious analyser

Particulate matter monitoring methodologies

Dust fall	Black smoke	TSP	PM₁₀	PM_2.5
		Low volume sampler

Quality assurance and control

Calibrations and flow checks	Annual site review	Data validation	Five yearly site review	Inter network comparison
no	no	no	no	NA

Overall score on assessment of the monitoring capability

A quantitative assessment of the monitoring capability of Greater Jhb Metro Council was provided by the management capability index with a ranking of 12 out of 25 for Johannesburg which has been ranked as moderate.

DATA ASSESSMENT AND AVAILABILITY INDEX

Assessing how the air quality data are processed to enhance their value and provide information in a decision-relevant form as well as the availability of data

Data Assessment

Simple statistics	Percentiles	Compliance	Trends	Mapping	Prediction modelling	Health studies
yes	No	yes	yes	no	no	no

Data dissemination

Internal reports	Published reports	Reported in the media	Air quality alerts issued	Electronic data communication
no	no	no	no	no

Overall score on data assessment and dissemination

Greater Jhb Metro Council scored approximately 2 points on the ratio data assessment and availability to measurement indices which indicate the usage of data being monitored.

EMISSIONS ESTIMATES INDEX

Assessment of emissions inventories conducted to determine the extent to which decision-relevant information is available about the sources of pollution in the city.

Emissions estimates for major source categories

Industrial	Mobile	Domestic/Commercial
no	No	no

Pollutants for which emissions estimate have been derived – not available

Emissions estimates validity and availability – not available

Overall score on emissions estimation capability.

Greater Jhb Metro Council scored no points on the emissions estimation capability.

MANAGEMENT ENABLING CAPABILITIES INDEX

Assessing the administrative and legislative framework through which emissions control strategies are introduced and implemented to manage air quality.

Air quality standards

Acute	Chronic	Subject to compliance	Future amendments planned

Emission limits and emissions monitoring

Industry	Cars	HGVs	Domestic	Industry	Cars	HGVs

Greater Jhb Metro Council scored 12 out of 25 points on the air quality management tools required to formulate and implement air quality management strategies.

Overall score for Greater Jhb Metro Council

Greater Jhb Metro Council scored 38 out of 100 in the overall management capability index which indicate a need for guidance in the formulation and implementation of air quality management strategies, as well as capacity building to enhance the development of monitoring, emissions inventories and data assessment. Without the development of all the components of an air quality management capability it will be difficult to meet the recommendations of Agenda 21 as well as combating global climate change.

RESPONSES

INDUSTRY

Inadequate information exist regarding the current status of non schedule industries within the Greater Jhb Metro Council.

Gaps

Audit of each industry to establish processes, air pollution levels and minimum criteria
Environmental Management strategy to be developed with industries to reduce emissions as well as energy saving.
Air quality objectives to reflect industries
Estimating pollution loads

TRANSPORTATION

Objectives identified during LDOs 1997

Introduction of unleaded fuel in motor cars although South Africa is the only country not to have made use of catalytic converters with introduction of unleaded fuel.
Increased production of diesel engines anticipated
An improved public transport system should be developed.

To promote the use of public transport over private car travel, with the goal of achieving a ration of 80:20 between public transport and private car usage
To improve accessibility and mobility, limiting walking distances to less than about one kilometer in urban areas
To ensure that public transport is affordable, with commuters spending less than about 10 % of disposable income on transport
Promotion of cycling and cycling patch

Gaps

Currently it is only the old Johannesburg area of the SMLC that is subject to control of air pollution by fumes emitted by vehicles the rest of Greater Jhb Metro Council is uncontrolled.
Accreditation of air quality monitoring programme which make the current monitoring void for comparison to research studies
Limited monitoring within the Soweto Air monitoring Programme based on PM excluding other parameters such as ozone, oxides of nitrogen and lead.

Public transport are not co-ordiante and do not cover all areas
Development corridors must be identified to support sustainable public transport

The use of public transport across all areas is not actively promoted
Focus areas identified without adequate data for support of such focus areas
Focus areas lack long term and integrated development strategies

Projection studies on the impact of transportation based on emissions

Fossil fuel for heating and cooking in townships and CBD

Conventional standards are not always appropriate or affordable and one would need to assess various technical options for example:

SECTOR	OBJECTIVES	INCREASING SERVICES THROUGH UPGRAIDING
Power	Economic power consumption; future power line installation	Allowance for improved cooking stoves Clearance maintained between plot boundaries and access routes for overhead lines	Security street lighting One amp semiconductor fuses	Household energy meteres

A key factor in combating air pollution from household fossil fuel would need a comprehensive environmental and health promotion strategy focussing on:

Objective	Action
Appropriate planning	Knowledge and Behavioural participatory study to inform programme Applying adult education principles
Increase in knowledge	Mass awareness strategy to precede an educational programme or parallel implementation Ongoing participatory education campaign
Behaviour change	Usage of improved fuels Technical support, demonstrations& kiosks Adequate combustion of coal stoves and braziers
Enabling factors	Availability of low smoke coal Economic viability of cleaner fuels Gas and paraffin prices to be reduced through better regulation and improved infrastructure.
Upgrading of services	Strengthening of electricity networks Increased electrification of townships coupled with an education strategy based on culture and behavioural studies.
Available information

Upgrading and installation of street and area lights in the southern areas
Installation of lighting throughout the area

MINING

Reduction of dust from mines is possible through the stabalisation of ground and improved mine dump management.

Grassing of mine dumps as well as council contribution where the owner could not held responsible.
The impact of mining on water and air pollution must be minimised without it being uneconomical.

Meadowlands success story to be highlighted as a case study.

BURNING OF WASTE

Tyres and waste

UNTARRED ROADS

Conventional standards are not always appropriate or affordable and one would need to assess various technical options as for example untarred roads:

SECTOR	OBJECTIVES	INCREASING SERVICES THROUGH UPGRAIDING
Roads	Pedestrian and vehicle access to all houses at slow speed	Profiled and compacted earth roads	Profiled and compacted gravel roads Water bound macadam roads Bituminous surfaceing	Bituminous macadam pavement Concrete pavement

POWER STATIONS

Air quality management capability

Greater Jhb Metro Council air quality management capability has been rated as limited according to the

LEGISLATION

Air pollution prevention act (Act 45 of 1965)
No national air quality standards exist in South Africa only national guidelines issued by the Department of Environmental Affairs and Tourism’s Atmospheric Pollution Control Directorate. The WHO and EPA standards and guidelines are used.
The Department of Environmental affairs and Tourism is responsible for issuing permits and monitoring Scheduled Industries.
The Department of Mineral and Energy Affairs Government Mining Engineer is responsible for the control and monitoring of dust from mining operations, including mine tailings.

Local Government is responsible for the control of air pollution from combustion processes (other than Scheduled Industries), diesel vehicle emissions and dust (other than from mining)

INSTITUTIONAL CAPACITY

Report

UNSUSTAINABLE ENERGY USE PATTERNS

To adopt and energy and environment policy and prepare an energy and environment plan
Measuring current energy consumption needs
Energy managed of council buildings
Insulation of housing stock
Solar energy sources to be promoted
Energy policy to focus on the needs of energy users within a socio economic framework and environmental stainability.
Energy efficiency and conservation to be a cornerstone of energy policies.

Gaps

Grose lack of decision making information for energy conservation
Comprehensive awareness strategy with insentives

POPULATION GROWTH / URBANISATION

Rapid urbanisation placing pressure on low cost housing could aggravate the situation unless electrification and education programmes keep pace

Gaps

Integrated development planning with Local Economic Development and health focussing on economic factors, upliftment of women and education

ENVIRONMENTAL EDUCATION

The current status on level of knowledge, attitude and behaviour regarding air pollution is unknown as one of the major gaps within environmental education is a thorough quantitative as well as qualitative study to determine the forgoing factors as well as the development of an informed strategy.

Behaviour and attitude change requires time and effort, which demand at least a five-year education strategy with integration into the curriculum.

Link to environmental education chapter

To be added

Impacts on soil and water for Integrated Environmental Management
Cross analysis (population figures, industries, socio- economic)
Projections (population, industry, energy consumption, transportation)
Indoor air pollution (illustrations, levels)
Impact of air pollution on plants as well as threshold limits
List of industries and type of industry
List of scheduled industries
Impact on vegetation and threshold limits
Air quality management indicators to assess effectiveness of system

Climatology / wind roses / modeling techniques to do projections on air pollution episodes
Industrial pollution projection system to establish the level of pollution per industry
Global climate issues
Energy consumption patterns, energy demand vs supply demand

Resources

Fuggle and Rabie; Environmental Management in South Africa; 1992, Juta & Co. Ltd; Johannesburg

Miller; Living in the Environment; 1994, Wadsworth Publishing Company, Belmont, California.

Chenje M and Johnson P; State of the Environment in Southern Africa; 1994; Creda, Gauteng.

Grange G; Tydskrif vir Skoon Lug Vol. 8 Pg 4; 1991; The more important sources of air pollution in the Republic of South Africa and the most recent control policies adopted by the authorities.

Lee. J.A.; The Environment, Public Health and Human Ecology; 1985; International Bank for Reconstruction and Development.

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Please Reference the Copyright with the Greater Johannesburg Metropolitan Council.
For problems or questions regarding this web contact Johan Minnie.
Last updated: September 17, 1999.
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Please Reference the Copyright with the Greater Johannesburg Metropolitan Council. For problems or questions regarding this web contact Johan Minnie. Last updated: September 17, 1999. Thanks for visiting, you are visitor number:

Please Reference the Copyright with the Greater Johannesburg Metropolitan Council.
For problems or questions regarding this web contact Johan Minnie.
Last updated: September 17, 1999.
Thanks for visiting, you are visitor number: