Responses to changes in the state of terrestrial ecosystems

Conventions and Agreements:  

In 1987 the United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP) initiated a global assessment of soil degradation (GLASOD) which culminated in the "World Map on the Status of Human-Induced Soil Degradation" (Oldemann, Hakkeling & Sombroek, 1990). Laker (1993) was responsible for the section on South Africa, Lesotho and Namibia. The GLASOD project focussed attention on the most important causes of degradation in Africa : 50% through overgrazing, 25% by agricultural mismanagement and 12,5% each by over-exploitation and deforestation.

The UN Convention to Combat Desertification (UNCCD) has as its primary objective "to combat desertification and mitigate the effects of drought in countries experiencing serious drought and/or desertification, particularly in Africa, through the effective action at all levels, supported by international cooperation and partnership arrangements, in the framework of an integrated approach which is consistent with Agenda 21, with a view to contributing to the achievement of sustainable development in affected areas". South Africa ratified this Convention in 1997, thus legally binding this country to practical action at the local level. The country is currently developing a National Action Programme whose aim is "to identify the factors contributing to desertification and practical measures necessary to combat desertification and mitigate the effects of drought".

The Convention on Biological Diversity (CBD) aims to effect international cooperation in the conservation of biological diversity and to promote the sustainable use of living natural resources worldwide. Cooperation in ensuring the conservation and sustainable use of biodiversity is attended to in southern Africa, with all relevant role-players. International meetings are held to incorporate traditional knowledge into the implementation of the CBD and related aspects of biodiversity.

The Convention also aims to bring about sharing of the benefits arising from the utilisation of natural resources. The White Paper on the Conservation and Sustainable Use of South Africa's Biodiversity (July 1997) implements this at a national level, through the use of applicable resources in the tourism industry; community participation (including industry and business) in biodiversity management; and integration of conservation and sustainable use of biodiversity into all sectors, including industry.

South Africa ratified the Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora (CITES) in 1975, and can claim with justification to be a world leader in the field of international wildlife conservation, as demonstrated by its active participation in CITES. For example, the issuing of permits is strictly regulated at the provincial level, and measures to combat smuggling of species are enforced by Customs and Excise and the Directorates of Plant and Quality Control and of Veterinary Services of the Department of Agriculture. (See Political Environment).

South Africa ratified the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (FCCC) in August 1997. The convention addresses the threat of global climate change by urging governments to reduce the sources of greenhouse gases. The ultimate objective of the convention is to stabilise greenhouse gas concentrations in the atmosphere at a level that would prevent dangerous interference with the climate system of the world. The consequences of this for the distribution of biomes and species, and therefore the composition of biomes, will depend on its effectiveness, and on the time delay in regulating concentrations of greenhouse gases in the atmosphere.

National Policy and Legislation: 

Clear environmental policy guidelines and statutes, motivated by the concept of sustainable utilization can help to ensure sound management of terrestrial ecosystems. A few of the recently promulgated acts are listed below. For a more comprehensive list of acts which have implications for terrestrial ecosystems, please refer to Policy.

Implications for Terrestrial Systems:

Mountain Catchment Areas Act (Act No. 63 of 1976):Recognizes mountain catchments as sensitive areas and makes provision for their conservation

Conservation of Agricultural Resources Act (Act No. 43 of 1983): Provides for control over the utilization of the natural agricultural resources of South Africa in order to promote the conservation of the soil, water sources and vegetation, and the combatting of weeds and invader plants.

Minerals Act (Act No. 50 of 1991): Regulates prospecting for and exploitation, processing and utilization of minerals; to provide for the safety and health of persons concerned in mines and works and regulates utilization and rehabilitation of land during and after prospecting and mining operations.

National Environmental Management Act (Act No. 107 of 1998): Makes provision for co-operative environmental governance by establishing principles for environmental decision-making; identifies institutions that will promote co-operative governance and determines procedures for co-ordinating environmental functions of state departments. Regulations also mandate environmental impact assessments for various kinds of change in land use, which include afforestation. It also notes that "the disturbance of ecosystems and loss of biological diversity is avoided, or, where it cannot be altogether avoided, is minimised and remedied....".

National Water Act (Act No. 36 of 1998): Makes provision for the licensing of forest plantations as one of several different kinds of water uses, a successor to the afforestation permit system.

National Forests Act (Act 84 of 1998): Makes provisions for the development of criteria, indicators and standards for sustainable forest management

In addition to these Acts, a few policies which have yet to be legislated are worthy of mention here (a more comprehensive list of current policies with implications for terrestrial ecosystems is given in Political Environment). The Discussion Document on Agricultural Policy in South Africa (1998), for example, emphasises the importance of achieving sustainable, equitable and efficient agricultural development. With respect to the conservation of plants and animal species and the protection of endangered ecosystems, the emphasis will be on meeting internationally agreed standards and commitments and translating these into national standards.

A White Paper on Integrated Pollution and Waste Management for South Africa was tabled in parliament in August 1998. This policy represents a paradigm shift towards:

• prevention and minimisation of waste and pollution at source
• management and minimisation of the impacts of unavoidable waste from its generation to its disposal
• ensuring the integrity and sustained "fitness for use" of all environmental media (i.e. air, water, and land)
• remediation of any pollution of the environment by holding responsible parties accountable
• integration of environmental, social, political, and development needs, and the rights of all sectors, communities and individuals.

The goals and objectives of the policy will be implemented through the National Waste Management Strategy, under the auspices of the Department of Environmental Affairs & Tourism, and the Department of Water Affairs & Forestry. The strategy will set action plans, time frames and targets, as well as developing hazardous waste information systems and records, and developing mechanisms to promote cleaner technologies. As at July 1999, a draft Bill is being compiled from the comments received on the White Paper, and is prioritised for cabinet approval this year.

The White Paper on the Conservation and Sustainable Use of South Africa's Biological Diversity (1998), recognises the importance of:

• conservation of the diversity of landscapes, ecosystems, habitats, communities, populations, species and genes;
• sustainable use of biological resources and minimisation of adverse impacts on biodiversity;
• ensuring that benefits derived from the use and development of SA genetic resources serve national interests;
• improving capacity to conserve and use biodiversity and to address threats to biodiversity;
• creating conditions and incentives that support conservation and sustainable use of biodiversity; and
• promotion of conservation and sustainable use at the international level.

In order to achieve the above key goals, various objectives must be met, including:

• management of threatening processes
• promotion of landscape level planning & management;
• community (including industry and business) participation in management;
• restoration and rehabilitation of degraded areas;
• integration of conservation and sustainable use of biodiversity into all sectors;
• integration of conservation and sustainable use of biodiversity into land-use planning procedures and environmental assessments;
• protection of wetlands;
• reduction of resource consumption;
• establishing incentives and disincentives for conservation and sustainable use of biodiversity, including property rights and economic instruments.

The White Paper on Science & Technology (1996) recognises the need for a national strategy to develop an integrated understanding of the problems of climatic change, desertification and loss of biodiversity.

However, the application of many new principles is in its infancy, and authorities tasked with implementation are short of manpower and financial resources. Furthermore, legislation and enforcement will not reduce the demand for medicinal products, and other responses are needed to minimise pressure on wild populations. These include initiating and providing incentives for commercial cultivation of highly desirable medicinal species, and incorporating communities in conservation decisions so that they are encouraged to regulate harvesting pressure within acceptable limits. An Investigation into the Institutional Arrangements for Nature Conservation in South Africa (known as the Kumleben Report) noted that in order to redress the alienation from nature conservation that resulted from past policies, the following objectives must be achieved:

• to involve the local communities in decisions and other matters relating to protected areas;
• to serve as educational facilities for local communities in the cause of nature conservation;
• to ensure that they derive economic benefits from protected areas.

South African National Parks, and KwaZulu-Natal Parks and Wildlife have created consultative structures such as community forums (consisting of SANP members and representatives of the various interest groups in the community) and local boards. Certain protected areas have also established environmental education centres to create awareness amongst local communities, and particularly schoolchildren. Arts and crafts markets have also been established in certain protected areas, employment opportunities have been created, and local communities have benefited from yields such as meat from culled animals. Some conservation authorities have also embarked on projects such as construction of schools and healthcare projects in neighbouring areas (Kumleben et al. 1998).

Current Initiatives:  

The South African LandCare Initiative: based on the initiative that has been very successful in Australia, has also recently been launched (Discussion document: Implementation Framework for the LandCare programme, 1998). Based on the ideal of sustainable agricultural resource utilization, it includes natural resource, sociological, political and economic dimensions, as the basis for establishing a conservation ethic.

Stock Reduction Scheme: This scheme was applied in commercial rangeland areas, and ran from 1969-1978. Its main objectives were to reduce the number of stock on rangelands, withdraw eroded and vulnerable areas from grazing, and institute judicious management practices on remaining rangelands. Targeted regions included the Succulent Karoo, Nama Karoo and western parts of the Savanna and Grassland Biomes. Although R54 million was spent on the scheme (1978 value), Baard (1978) concluded that this amount could not be justified given the inherently low production potential of its target areas.

National Grazing Strategy (NGS): Announced in 1985, its main objective was to "use, develop and manage the natural and cultivated pastures in the RSA". Progress with the scheme seemed mixed after 6 years (Du Toit et al. 1991), with slow research progress and implementation of a national monitoring system. The status of this scheme is in flux in the light of the current focus on the BATAT initiative (Broadening Access to Agriculture), which focusses on communal and emerging small-scale farmers.

Drought Assistance schemes: Numerous government funded drought assistance schemes have been announced over the last several decades. The most recent being the Disaster Drought Assistance Scheme for stock farmers in the RSA (effected during 1990). This scheme, it is suspected, favoured continued farming by the most indebted commercial farmers, preventing foreclosure of a number of farms and thus representing a "lost opportunity for land reform" (Rimmer 1993).

Apart from the initiatives mentioned above, South Africa has become involved in the WOCAT programme (World Overview of Conservation Approaches and Technologies) through the National Department of Agriculture and the Institute for Soil, Climate and Water of the Aricultural Research Council. Their goal is to contribute to sustainable use of soil and water through collection, analysis, presentation and dissemination of soil and water technologies and approaches world-wide, to promote improved decision-making and land management. Their approach was used in the recently released landmark study on Land Degradation in South Africa (Hoffman et al. 1999).

Following the democratic elections of 1994 in the RSA, considerable de-regulation of control over commodity production and marketing took place. Rigid control boards have largely been replaced by commodity forums and trusts. The anticipated effect of this will be to open access to production with positive effects on the environment, such as reduced acidification and erosion, given that the advantages of responsible cultivation practices and use of agrochemicals are appreciated, and provided that the necessary sustainability is promoted.

Action that is required to restore degraded land includes liming of acidified soil, leaching and gypsum treatment of salt affected and alkaline soils, and reclamation of soils disturbed by open cast and other mining. A large liming programme on acidified soils in Mpumalanga has been initiated under the auspices of the LandCare programme (Koch, 1997). This programme is due to be extended to other provinces as well.

There is a growing tendency worldwide, but also in South Africa, to move away from conventional tillage, largely monoculture cultivation in favour of conservation tillage practices (Fowler, 1998). The decline in soil organic matter in soils is the basic cause of soil degradation. Increasing organic matter is the only way to curb and reverse soil degradation (van der Merwe & de Villiers, 1998). Soil organic matter is the key variable in soil quality in ensuring soil resilience for the growth of plants and for regulating and portioning water flow through the environment and of serving as an environmental filter. Its increase has a further advantage in that carbon is increasingly sequestrated , with the advantages that this holds in reducing carbon dioxide contributions to the greenhouse effect. (See Climate and Atmospheric Change).

Recently, the organised forest industry has developed and implemented the "Guidelines on Environmental Management" with the second edition having been released in March 1999. These guidelines have framed the standards of environmental management applied by forest managers, and the internal and external audits used through most plantations to test for conformance to standards. There has been notable progress, for example in improving the management of riparian zones.

The major forest companies have all elected to pursue certification of their operations in terms of generally acceptable criteria and indicators of sustainable forest management, or environmental management systems. South Africa ranks fourth in the world in terms of the number of certificates issued by the international Forestry Stewardship Council (FSC), after the USA, Sweden, and the UK (Thornber 1999). These certificates require that certain aspects of management meet strict standards. One large company has elected to obtain ISO 14001 certification rather than FSC, while others are working towards obtaining ISO 14001 certificates in addition to FSC. A major forestry co-operative, with more than 700 private members, is seeking ways for collective certification.

In addition, biodiversity concerns are frequently raised during the scoping phase of Environmental Impact Assessments (EIA). These proactive measures aim to:

• to take environmental effects of activities into consideration before decisions are taken;
• to promote sustainable development, "thereby achieving and maintaining an environment which is not harmful to people's health and well-being";
• to ensure that activities do not have a substantial detrimental effect on the environment;

>     Terrestrial Ecosystems: Outcomes

There is also information about Terrestrial Ecosystems in the following reports:
Metropolitan reports:
	Cape Metropolitan Council (1998 edition)		Durban Pilot Study
	Greater Johannesburg Metropolitan Council (1999 edition)		Greater Pretoria Metropolitan Council (1999 edition)