Please note that this section will in the near future be replaced by an overview of the state of the environment in South Africa, based on the source documents from which this Internet site was developed. The overview will contain the same text as the printed (hard copy) version of the report (which will be about 40 printed pages) which will also be available in the most prominent indigenous languages namely Afrikaans, Xhosa, Zulu and Tswana. For now, this section contains a brief summary of each of the chapters of the state of the environment report.

Climatic and Atmospheric Change

South Africa is sensitive to climate change, and contributes about 1.2% to global warming.

The levels of sulphur dioxide, nitric oxide and ozone are on average within the accepted South African guidelines for human health and the prevention of direct ecosystem damage and the measured concentrations at ground level are not showing an upward trend.

There are occasions, especially in the major urban areas, where the concentrations of sulphur dioxide, nitric oxide, ozone and particles are likely to lead to further health problems in people who are already experiencing respiratory problems. No trend in the number of times which these levels are exceeded is apparent, but with more people living in urban areas, the impact is likely to increase.

Indoor air quality constitutes a health hazard in poorly-ventilated dwellings without chimneys where coal, wood, paraffin or dung are used as fuel. The electrification of houses will assist this situation, as will the general improvement in housing design and construction brought about by the national housing policy. Greater efforts to improve the ambient air quality (for instance by paving of roads in informal settlements), to promote low-smoke fuels and to educate the public on the dangers of open fires inside houses are necessary.

Susceptible land and freshwater ecosystems are likely to show adverse effects of acid deposition in a few decades if the current emission rates of sulphur dioxide and nitric oxide are continued or increased.

Sustainability of terrestrial ecosystems

Rapid population growth, and the consequent high demand for resources such as food and energy, has resulted in transformation of large areas of land (86% of the country) to cultivation and livestock production; and large quantities of urban and industrial emissions and wastes. Mismanagement of these processes has resulted in degradation of the land in some areas, and reduced capacity to continue to support life. Historical and current land use planning practices and policies, combined with uneven distribution of wealth and a high poverty rate, have resulted in uneven settlement patterns and intensified the demand for resources in some areas. Urban and international demand for certain biological resources, for medicinal or horticultural purposes, also places pressure on populations of these often rare or endangered species. Human activities resulting in the introduction of alien species have had serious consequences for most natural habitats, in terms of changes in biodiversity, and altered functionality of ecosystem processes.

Recent reassessment of the state of land degradation in South Africa (Hoffman et al. 1999) indicates that many areas previously thought to be degraded are in relatively good condition. Commercial rangelands have benefited from government support in the form of science and technological research, and biassed policies and intervention schemes. The Northern Province, KwaZulu-Natal and the Eastern Cape are the provinces with the highest levels of degradation. Areas with steep slopes, low rainfall and high temperatures are significantly more degraded, especially in communal areas (which are associated with conditions of poverty). However, these trends may be slowing, as alternative sources of income gain in importance and standards of living rise. Recent and ongoing political and social transformation in South Africa will facilitate this. Specific problems of soil degradation (such as acidification, salinity, pollution and erosion) need to be addressed, where applicable. A more holistic view of soil utilization, embodying conservation tillage practices to increase soil organic matter, needs to be adopted. Attention needs to be given to both the commercial as well as the communal sectors and it is anticipated that the differences between them will diminish. Monitoring of agricultural output and rangeland condition will be a critical component of attempts to improve rangeland condition and facilitate sustainable development.

Plantation forestry has developed in South Africa in response to domestic and international demand for wood and wood products, and now occupies about 1.5 million hectares of land. The trends in the development of the industry have placed significant pressures on land, water, natural habitats, and biological diversity. However, forestry has also contributed to conservation of natural habitats and cultural heritage, as well as social upliftment, and economic growth. Government responses to ensure a more sustainable approach to plantation forestry include provisions in the National Forestry Action Programme and the National Forests Act, the National Water Act, and the National Environmental Management Act. Community forestry projects are also contributing to social and environmental improvement. Initiatives in the private sector include agreement on environmental norms in forestry, and implementation of international environmental management standards.

South Africa is ranked as the 3rd most biologically diverse country in the world. However, exploitative use of natural resources, and conversion and fragmentation of natural habitats, contribute to South Africa also having the highest concentration of threatened species, and high extinction rates. Poverty alleviation, population stabilisation, and formalisation of the production of plants and animals for medicinal and horticultural markets, will go a long way to reducing pressures on scarce biological resources. The success of the cut flower industry and game farming enterprises demonstrate how resources can be managed for the benefit of the ecosystem as well as the economy.

About 10 million hectares (8.27%) of South Africa has been invaded to some extent by alien species (Versveld et al. 1998). Alien species impact on water resources and threaten biodiversity. For example, aliens in the Northern and Western Cape use about 15% to 16% of mean annual rainfall, and almost half of the threatened plant species in the Western Cape are threatened with extinction from invading alien vegetation. At a conservative expansion rate of 5% per annum, the impacts of aliens could double in 15 years (Versveld et al. 1998). Alien removal is therefore a priority, although it is estimated to cost R5.4 billion per year. The Working for Water scheme cleared 107,565 hectares of alien infested areas, 128,648 hectares of follow-up clearing, and employed 23,662 people in 1998/1999 (1998/99 Annual Report).

Sustainability of freswater resources

South Africa's available freshwater resources are already almost fully-utilised and under stress. At the projected population growth and economic development rates, it is unlikely that the projected demand on water resources in South Africa will be sustainable. Water will increasingly becoming the limiting resource in South Africa, and supply will become a major restriction to the future socio-economic development of the country, in terms of both the amount of water available and the quality of what is available.

To augment supplies, South Africa is looking towards water sources in other southern African countries (e.g. Lesotho and Namibia) to assist in providing sufficient water for projected future demands. The risks of international dependency on such a priority resource are high, as has been proven by the conflicts in Israel, the Congo, Rwanda, Nigeria and Uganda. Other possible supplies of water, such as desalinisation of seawater and water from icebergs, may be potential options in the long-term, although currently they are too expensive to exploit. It is imperative that South Africa develop both a water-efficient economy together with a social ethic of water conservation and ultimately a culture of sustainability of water resource use.

Sustainability of marine and coastal systems

The degree with which the sustainability of marine and coastal resources can be achieved is directly influenced by the threats to the integrity of the ecosystems and specific resources such as fish stocks and estuaries. Incidents of point- and non-point sources of pollution on the marine and coastal systems and resources together with unsustainable coastal developments (as a consequence of increasing population numbers) as well as over-exploitation of the resource base needs to be addressed.

Increased consideration of environmental issues such as ecosystem integrity and coastal sensitivity in planning procedures for urban development are essential to ensure that marine and coastal systems and their resources are utilised and managed in a sustainable manner. Longer term issues such as global warming and sea level rise also need to be considered and the continuous sea level monitoring initiatives should be maintained.

The development and implementation of and the general understanding the principles of Integrated Environmental Management must continue to be promoted and the legislation of EIA for activities which may have a substantial detrimental effect on the environment (s.21 of Environmental Conservation Act, No 73 of 1989) need to be rigorously enforced.

It is important that the Coastal Management Policy for South Africa should be formally adopted. Progress made thus far with this initiative is particularly encouraging as is the development of a coastal management forum for the KwaZulu Natal coast which is being carried out for the provincial Department of Local Government and Housing.

Recommendations for the way forward include the effective and efficient implementation of both general environmental management legislation and the coastal management policy. The formation of effective and not merely representative coastal management forums structured around well resourced institutional structures with clear mandates to ensure the sustainable development of the country's coastal and marine resources is essential.

Social Environment

There are clear links between the political history of South Africa and the social and natural environments. Apartheid policies which restricted the political rights of non-white people also limited their ability to improve their socio-economic status. Women were particularly affected as they had the lowest status of all. This resulted in the majority of the population being trapped in poverty. It has been shown universally that poor people generally have more children. When socio-economic status (and particularly the status of women) improves and there is adequate access to education, health care and jobs, the birth rate declines. This process has already started in South Africa and can be expected to increase at a faster rate.

In the past most South Africans did not have adequate incomes or access to land and could not afford their own housing. This lead to household overcrowding and uncontrolled informal settlement with negative effects for the soil surface (see Chapter 2). Low incomes meant that people could not afford electricity and therefore used other fuels for heating which contributed to degradation of natural vegetation, and increased the risk of respiratory diseases through generation of atmospheric pollution (see Chapter 1).

The uncontrolled exploitation of marine resources along the coast for food has negatively affected the coastal and marine ecosystems (see Chapter 4). Affordability also affected access to clean water and the incidence of water related diseases (see Chapter 3). Low productivity due to low educational levels and, consequently, high unemployment affect state revenue (see Chapter 6) and the ability of the country to provide services such as education and health care. Since the change of government in 1994 all national policies have been redesigned to alleviate poverty and manage the environment sustainably (see Chapter 7).

It is not only poor people that affect the environment. As income levels improve, people consume more and produce more waste (see Chapter 6). Recreational activities that require open space may contribute to environmental degradation. Industrial manufacturing processes produce emissions which affect the atmosphere (see Chapter 1) and contaminate water resources (see Chapter 3).

South Africa has a vast array of resources, facilities and infrastructure to support its population although not everyone has adequate access to them. The new government has made the alleviation of poverty its main national priority. All levels of government are implementing new policies to ensure that everyone has access to services to enable them to meet their basic needs. It is too soon to evaluate the effect of these policies, although it can be anticipated that their overall effect on poverty and the natural environment will be favourable in the long term. In the short term however, until the employment rate increases to provide satisfactory incomes, the degradation of the natural habitat will continue as people deplete marine resources for food, denude the landscape through overgrazing and collection of building material and household fuel.

There is a heightened awareness about the possible negative effects of socio-economic development on the natural environment. Legislation requires that environmental impact assessments (including social impact assessments) be undertaken for all new developments that affect the natural environment. This imposes additional costs on developers which may have a detrimental affect on employment and retard the alleviation of poverty. There are also concerns about institutional capacity at all levels of government. It will be some time before all branches of government are effectively able to implement measures to alleviate poverty, curb crime and administer the already existing legal measures to mitigate negative impacts on the natural environment.

Economic Environment

Economics and the environment are inextricably linked, as natural resources are used in production, manufacturing, and waste disposal. Previous macro-economic policies such as subsidizing polluting activities, and artificially lowering the costs of energy and water use, have led to resource degradation and depletion. At present the economy is growing, but at a slow rate, and unemployment is high, and increasing. This is contributing to unsustainable resource use, polluting activities, and dependency on natural resources.

Macro-economic policy reform towards promoting growth, employment, equity, trade, and reducing inflation, must be carefully planned to ensure that they do not also encourage environmentally unsustainable practices. Such planning may involve full cost accounting (e.g. by removing distortions from the economy such as energy subsidization), taxing pollution and waste generation, managing interest rates so that harmful land use practices are discouraged, and providing alternatives to informal sector activities which use environmental resources unsustainably.

Changing economic practices to include environmental resources as capital in the national accounts, will also raise awareness to their real value, and promote their sustainable use.