National Committee on Climate Change

Climate change as a result of human activities is believed to be one of the most serious problems facing the environment. Climate change is a global problem because it will affect not only the countries with high greenhouse gas emissions, but all countries. Furthermore, no country acting on its own would be able to substantially influence the effects and causes of climate change. Policies addressing climate change will have environmental, political, economic and social impacts on all of us, and will require action by all of us.

Recognising this, the international community agreed to address the problem of climate change in a global way by drafting the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change and subsequent protocols such as the Kyoto Protocol. South Africa ratified the Convention on 29 August 1997.

This is a discussion document. It is a step in the process of developing a policy on climate change for South Africa, but is not itself government policy. Its purpose is to -

• create awareness and understanding about climate change;

• outline the national and international situation regarding climate change;

• communicate South Africa’s obligations as a Party to the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change;

• stimulate input from all affected Parties regarding the content of the policy;

• begin the process of formulating policy approaches to respond to climate change both locally and internationally; and

• contribute to a co-ordinated response by South Africa on climate change issues.

The Convention is continuously being developed through the drafting of protocols. The final policy needs to reflect not only what South Africa’s position is today, but how we will approach changes and additions to the Convention.

The National Committee on Climate Change (NCCC), an advisory body to the Department and Minister of Environmental Affairs and Tourism, selected two independent drafters to write the discussion document on Climate Change. The NCCC consists of representatives from business, industry, labour, environmental non-government organisations, national departments and provinces.

The discussion document will be available for public comment in August. A multisectoral workshop will be held in September 1998. Comments recorded from the public and the proceedings of the workshop will be considered for incorporation into a draft White Paper. The draft White Paper is expected to be published for comment and parliamentary portfolio committee hearings by January 1999.

The draft White Paper will be formulated based on inputs from the national workshop and is envisaged to be available by the end of February 1999. This document will contain the proposed new policy on climate change and be submitted to the Minister of Environmental Affairs and Tourism, after which it will be tabled before the relevant portfolio committees, national stakeholders and the public in April 1999.

Contact addresses for obtaining more information on this process are listed at the end of this document.

What is in this document?

This document was written under the guidance of the National Climate Change Committee, and especially of the Subcommittee on Policy, chaired by Greg Tosen. Financial support for the process was provided by the United States Country Studies Programme and the South African Department of Environmental Affairs and Tourism, through the Foundation for Research Development. The document was drafted by Bob Scholes of the CSIR and Jenny Hall of Environmental Risk Services. The Climate Change Secretariat in the South African Weather Bureau coordinated the project.

The climate of the world varies from year to year, and has changed dramatically between, for instance, the last ice age 20 000 years ago and the present. A changing climate is therefore natural and expected, but there is a well-founded concern that the unprecedented human industrial and development activities of the past two centuries have caused changes over and above natural variation. In the long term, some of these changes may be to the disadvantage of the people of South Africa and the plants and animals which occur here, while others may be to their advantage. In the process of going rapidly from one climate to another, many regions of the world, including South Africa, could suffer from an accelerated rate of natural disasters such as floods, droughts, food shortages and disease epidemics for which they are poorly prepared. Plants and animals may not be able to adapt as quickly to climate change as humans can. In view of the risks involved in altering the global ecosystem so extensively and the uncertainties of the future, the global community has agreed to try to keep the rate and amount of human-caused climate change within safe limits, while not halting human development.

The global climate system is driven by energy from the sun. For instance, fluctuations of the energy received from the sun cause the ‘ice ages’ which the world has experienced several times in the last million years. The world is currently in a warm period, with another cool period expected in a few thousand years time. Several gases in the atmosphere (especially carbon dioxide, methane, nitrous oxide, lower atmosphere ozone and chlorofluorocarbons) act to trap the energy received from the sun (figure 2), thus warming the earth. For this reason they are called greenhouse gases. There is no uncertainty that the greenhouse effect occurs. Without it there would be no life on earth.

Human activities over the last 200 years, particularly the burning of fossil fuels (oil, coal and natural gas) and the clearing of forests, have increased the concentration of greenhouse gases in the atmosphere. It follows logically that this is likely to lead to more solar radiation being trapped, and the earth’s surface will warm up - this is referred to as the enhanced greenhouse effect. Almost all scientists agree this will happen, but there is debate about how much warming will occur and whether it can be proven to have started yet. There are strong indications, in the form of data from weather stations as well as from indicators such as melting glaciers and rising sea levels, that the earth has warmed up, on average, over the past century. Other factors, such as natural variations in the sun’s energy, may contribute to the warming, but the balance of the evidence suggests that human activities are the main cause.

A warmer world will mean more evaporation. This in turn should lead to more rainfall overall, but some areas could become drier. This is because water is transported in the atmosphere in ways which are hard to predict. In particular, scientists are not yet certain about how the linked circulation of the atmosphere and the oceans will behave under a climate differene and atmospheric circulation have a large effect on how much rain falls, and where, in South Africa. Several of the current models, which are very imperfect, suggest that the interior of South Africa could be drier in the future than at present.

Water vapour in the atmosphere is the most important greenhouse gas of all, but is not included in the list of gases addressed by the Convention, since the human effect on it is indirect. Carbon dioxide is the most important of the human-affected gases, responsible for about half of the calculated increase in absorbed solar radiation of the past century. Carbon dioxide is emitted when oil, coal or natural gas are burned, when some industrial materials like cement is manufactured, and when natural vegetation is cut down and the soil is ploughed in order to grow crops. The atmosphere contained 270 parts per million (ppm or ml/m³) carbon dioxide before 1750, the beginning of the Industrial Revolution. The atmospheric concentration has been increasing at a rate of about 1.5 ppm (0.4 %) per year over the period for which it has been accurately measured, and is now 360 ppm. The commitment to reduction envisaged in the Kyoto Protocol is not considered sufficient to result in significant reduction of the greenhouse gases. It is likely that carbon dioxide will continue to rise in the short term.

Apart from warming the world, carbon dioxide also stimulates plant growth, which causes them to take up more carbon dioxide, and reduces the amount of water which they need in order to grow. These ‘negative feedbacks’ make it even more difficult to predict what will happen in a world with a much higher atmospheric carbon dioxide content than at present.

Methane adds about one quarter to the global warming due to the enhanced greenhouse effect. Methane has many natural sources and sinks. The methane content of the atmosphere has been increasing unsteadily at around 10 parts per billion (0.6%) per year over the past century. It is thought that rice paddies, urban waste landfills, domestic livestock (cattle, sheep and horses), coal mining and leaks from natural gas pipelines are the main human activities contributing to the increase.

The remaining quarter of the enhanced greenhouse effect is caused by a long list of gases, each only present in tiny quantities. It includes nitrous oxide (N₂O) produced mainly from fertilisers, and sulphur hexaflouride, an entirely synthetic gas used in industry. Tropospheric ozone is a powerful greenhouse gas, which is formed by chemical reactions between nitrogen oxides (NO and NO₂), carbon monoxide and hydrocarbons, all emitted by vehicles and the burning of coal. Sulphur dioxide, one of the main gases leading to acid rain, and dust particles have an anti-greenhouse effect. The Convention and its Kyoto Protocol (see chapter three) set out to control the emissions of all these gases. Another international treaty, the Vienna Convention and its Montreal Protocol, seeks to limit the effect of chlorofluorocarbons and related gases on stratospheric ozone (‘the ozone hole’). Therefore, although most of the gases which lead to stratospheric ozone loss are greenhouse gases as well, they are excluded from the Convention on Climate Change.

South Africa, in terms of its Convention commitments, has undertaken an inventory of all its emissions of greenhouse gases. The results show that in 1990, South Africa was in the top twenty emitting countries in the world, responsible for just over 1 % of the global emissions. The emission rate per person in South Africa (10.1 tons of carbon dioxide equivalent per person per year) is above the global average (about 7 tons per person per year), but considerably below that of countries such as the United States of America (over 20 tons per person per year).

The main reasons for South Africa being a relatively large greenhouse gas emitter is that it is very well endowed with coal, but has little oil or natural gas, and a limited potential for hydroelectric power. Coal produces more carbon dioxide per unit of energy delivered than oil or gas. The international embargo on oil exports to South Africa during the apartheid years increased the dependence on coal for energy and liquid fuels. Currently coal provides more than 80% of the country’s primary energy needs. In order to fulfil the national energy policy of making clean, affordable and appropriate energy available to all sectors of the population, a balanced least-cost mix of energy supplies is being promoted. Coal will undoubtably continue to dominate other energy sources in South Africa for many years to come.

All the climate models predict that the mean air temperature over South Africa will increase in the future, but they disagree about precisely how much. The estimates fall in the range of 1 to 3.5°C over the next century, with a most likely estimate around 2°C. The increase will be greater at night than during the day, and greater in winter than in summer. It is highly likely that the average rainfall will change, but it could either increase or decrease, by up to about one-fifth of its present average value. It could increase in some parts of the country, and decrease in other parts. There is an indication, still very uncertain, that areas in the interior of continents (such as the South African Highveld and Kalahari Basin) may become drier. The winter rainfall region of the southern and western Cape could get more summer rainfall.

South African scientists are currently undertaking studies to estimate the possible effects of climate change on the country. This is one of the things we agreed to do by ratifying the Convention on Climate Change. The results of these studies will be available in 1999. On the basis of work already done, it is thought that the most important areas of concern are water resources, health, agriculture and forestry, the coastal zone and biodiversity.

South Africa’s rainfall is patchy in distribution and very variable between years. Most of the country is arid and subject to droughts and floods. South Africa’s industrial, domestic and agricultural users are highly dependent on a reliable supply of water. Since water-supply infrastructure takes years to develop and is designed to last for decades, water resource planners need to pay attention to the possibility of climate change. Even without climate change, South Africa is predicted to have exhausted its surface water resources by early next century. A reduction in rainfall amount or reliability, or an increase in evaporation (due to higher temperatures) would make this situation much worse. An increase in rainfall, or a reduction in plant water use due to the higher atmospheric concentration of carbon dioxide, would ease the problem slightly. It is not yet clear how these factors will balance each other, but there is a clear cause for concern.

There are several important insect-carried diseases of humans and livestock which are sensitive to the climate. For example, the mosquitoes which carry malaria in South Africa are confined to the warm, moist parts of the country. A small increase in the average temperature would allow malaria to spread into the areas which are currently malaria-free, and would increase its severity in areas where it already occurs.

Except for periods of widespread drought, South Africa is self-sufficient in food supply, despite two-thirds of the country falling below the rainfall limit for reliable wheat and maize crops. It is currently estimated that a 10% increase in rainfall coupled with an increase in carbon dioxide would lead to a 10-20% increase in wheat and maize production, while a 10% decrease in rainfall would be approximately balanced by the rising carbon dioxide content of the atmosphere. Slightly warmer temperatures may lead to a small reduction in wheat yields, but would have little effect on maize. These predictions are not very certain.

Most of South Africa, especially the drier part, is used for grazing by cattle, sheep and wildlife. Higher carbon dioxide will lead to less protein in the grass, which will reduce any benefit resulting from increased plant growth. Less rainfall would lead to proportionately less animal production.

The total extent of plantation forests in South Africa is limited by climate and by the need to conserve water in our rivers. The forestry industry could probably tolerate a small increase in temperature, but a decrease in rainfall would reduce the area which can support plantations, and the growth rate of the trees. A positive point is that rising carbon dioxide could help reduce water use by pine and gum plantations. Because plantation forests in South Africa are still expanding and growing, they absorb about 5 % of the carbon dioxide emitted by other industries. This sink potential could potentially be sold to developed countries which are committed to reducing their emissions, under the system known as joint implementation. The potential for increasing carbon storage by planting more trees in South Africa is limited by the fact that they would use up more of our scarce water supply.

The water in the oceans expands by a tiny fraction as it warms up. The oceans are so deep that this tiny fraction adds up to an increase in the mean sea level of three to five millimetres per year. If warming were to continue unabated, the polar icecaps will melt and the sea level will rise which is anticipated in the next century. A rise in the sea level threatens coastal infrastructure, such as harbours, beach-front buildings and roads, and can erode estuaries, coastal dunes and beaches. The consequences in South Africa of a small sea level rise are not very extensive because the coastline is relatively steep.

Changes in the oceans have important implications for South Africa (surrounded by oceans on three sides) and the world. In the recent past, variation in ocean currents has caused major changes in several fish resources important to South Africa. Future variations, which may be linked to climate change, could have a similar effect.

The natural changes in climate accompanying ice ages in the past have occurred to about the same extent as the changes predicted in the next century as a result of human activities, but have occurred over a much longer period of time. Plants, in particular, have trouble keeping up with rapid climate change. Small, isolated populations could go extinct as a result. South Africa has about 10% of all the plant species in the world, of which about half occur nowhere else on earth. Warming, and a change in the season in which rain falls in the Cape floral kingdom, are issues of concern to conservationists.

International law governs the relationships between countries. It includes international environmental law, which developed as the global community became aware that many environmental problems transcend national boundaries. There is accordingly a need to ensure that the acts of one state do not endanger resources that should be enjoyed by all. Cross-boundary problems must be addressed on both an international and a national level.

There are two diverse approaches to international legal instruments. The first approach proposes that specific obligations should be imposed on States that will be enforceable through compulsory dispute resolution and that violators should be subjected to sanctions. The second approach accepts the concept of state sovereignty and tries to form consensus within this system over a period of time through regular negotiations and by encouraging rather than imposing compliance. The United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change has combined these approaches by establishing a long term process that will lead to more specific obligations through the subsequent adoption of protocols.

International law is recognised in our Constitution (Act 108 of 1996). The Constitution provides that South Africa can enter into international agreements, recognise customary international law as part of our law and interpret the Bill of Rights (including the environmental right) in accordance with international law.

The Convention is a global commitment to take collective responsibility for climate change and is a mandate for action to address the problem.

The Convention was presented to the nations of the world for signature at the Rio Earth Summit in 1992. South Africa signed the Convention in 1994. By signing the Convention, South Africa indicated that it intended to follow the procedures to become bound by the Convention (by ratifying the Convention). It also indicated that it was committed not to act against the objectives of the Convention before becoming formally bound by the provisions of the Convention. South Africa ratified the Convention in 1997, at which stage the Convention became binding on us. This means that South Africa is obliged to adhere to all the obligations imposed on it in terms of being a Party to the Convention. It also means that South Africa can now benefit from provisions in the Convention, for instance by accessing international funds dedicated to mitigating climate change.

The Convention is called a framework convention because it is seen as a starting point of addressing the problem of climate change. This means that the Convention is not specific, but reflects a broad consensus in establishing institutions and procedures for further defining and approaching climate change. The Convention is therefore an evolutionary document, which will be expanded upon by protocols such as the Kyoto Protocol which was adopted in 1997. Protocols are usually separate legal instruments that are not strictly subject to the Convention. The protocols will therefore have their own Parties and ratification processes.

Ratifying the Convention has direct consequences for South Africa in terms of activities that we are obliged to perform. The ratification also has indirect consequences for sectors such as trade, economic development, agriculture, mining, energy, transport and the environment generally.

Climate change impacts and policy priorities differ for developed and developing countries. To address this, the concept of common but differentiated responsibilities was incorporated in the Convention. The Convention places more obligations on Annex I than non-Annex I countries. The countries listed in Annex I are developed countries or countries whose economies are in a state of transition. Parties that are not listed in Annex I are developing countries. South Africa ratified the Convention as a non-Annex I country (i.e. developing country).

The Convention sets out principles upon which the common but differentiated approach is based. These include the following:

• Climate change is a global problem and must be approached globally but the developed countries must at present, accept the main responsibility for addressing the issue.

• Developed countries should provide financial assistance and technology to developing countries to help them respond to, mitigate and adapt to climate change.

• Sustainable development and poverty alleviation must not be impeded by climate change policy but environmental damage must be minimised.

• Developing countries must be involved in all international climate change negotiations.

Summary of the Convention

Being a framework convention, the Convention does not contain detailed provisions regarding how Parties should address the climate change problem. It sets up the institutional procedures and legal mechanisms to address climate change as well as the requirements and obligations of addressing the problem. In doing this, the Convention sets out -

• an overall objective of stabilising atmospheric concentrations of greenhouse gas emissions;

• general principles to guide future work;

• a process of stipulating commitments and improving the information base;

• ways in which commitments can be implemented, for example, through joint implementation; and

• institutions to oversee the implementation and further development of the Convention.

These aspects are each discussed in more detail below.

Objectives

The objective of the Convention is to stabilise greenhouse gas concentrations in the atmosphere at levels that will not have an adverse effect on climate.

The Convention aims to control the rate of approach to these levels over a period of time in order to -

• allow ecosystems to adapt naturally to climate change;

• ensure that food production is not threatened; and

• enable economic development to proceed in a sustainable manner.

Principles

The Convention is guided by five main principles. These are intergenerational equity; recognition of the specific needs and circumstances of developing countries; the precautionary principle; sustainable development; and the need for global co-operation and an open international economic system that would lead to sustainable economic growth.

Commitments

All countries that have ratified the Convention are required to -

1. develop, update and publish national inventories of anthropogenic emissions by sources and removals by sinks of greenhouse gases - the greenhouse gases exclude those listed in the Montreal Protocol;

2. formulate, implement and update national and regional programmes containing measures to mitigate climate change;

3. promote and co-operate in the development and transfer of technology that controls, reduces or prevents anthropogenic emissions of greenhouse gases;

4. promote sustainable management, conservation and enhancement of sinks and reservoirs of greenhouse gases;

5. co-operate in preparing for the adaptation to the impacts of climate change;

6. take climate change considerations into account where feasible, in relevant social, economic and environmental policies and actions with a view to minimising adverse effects on the economy, public health and the quality of the environment;

7. promote and co-operate in research;

8. promote and co-operate in the timeous and transparent exchange of information, including scientific, technological, socio-economic and legal information;

9. promote and co-operate in education, training and public awareness and to encourage the widest participation in this process; and

10. report to the Conference of the Parties.

The policy process which this document begins aims to set out both the implications of these commitments and the ways in which South Africa will honour them. South Africa has already begun processes and activities that will give effect to its commitments. These include:

• A National Country Study has been initiated to collect information for a national inventory of greenhouse gas emissions. The results of this study will provide the foundation of a database of these emissions that will be kept up to date by submission of data by emitters on a regular basis.

• The National Country Study will also result in some preliminary evaluations of mitigation and adaptation options. This policy will introduce a range of options for debate.

• With regard to the promotion and co-operation for the development and transfer of technology, South Africa’s approach to science and technology is described in Chapter 4. Mechanisms to give effect to this commitment are introduced in Chapter 5. This approach includes the identification of technologies that could be marketed as well as the possible establishment of a clean technology centre.

South Africa has been invited to participate in a multi-national programme on promoting climate change awareness. This programme is funded by the Global Environmental Facility (GEF) and will result in specific materials for use locally.

The commitments set out above apply to all Parties. The developed country Parties and other Parties that are included in Annex I to the Convention have certain additional commitments. They are required to:

• Adopt national policies and take measures to mitigate climate change. The aim of this is to return greenhouse gas emissions jointly or individually by the year 2000 to 1990 levels.

• Communicate this information for review by the Conference of Parties.

• Review their policy.

• Assist developing countries that are particularly vulnerable to the adverse effects of climate change by meeting the costs of adaptation.

• Promote transfer of technology by improving local capacity and technology of developing country Parties. The Convention makes provision for the Conference of the Parties to review the adequacy of these commitments and agree on the best scientific methods for calculating emissions, through mechanisms such as the adoption of protocols for specific actions.

Joint Implementation

The Convention authorises Annex I countries to implement the policies and measures needed to mitigate climate change jointly with other Parties. The Convention also includes a procedure for determining criteria for joint implementation. As yet, the international procedures for doing so have not been agreed on.

Institutions

Seven institutional bodies have been established to implement and/or develop the Convention. The main body for negotiating amendments and developments to the Convention is the Conference of the Parties (COP). The other six bodies largely undertake technical and analytical support functions. A list of these bodies is set out below.

At the first Conference of the Parties, the Parties agreed to establish a process for strengthening the Annex I countries’ commitments contained in the Convention. They set a deadline of 1997 for adopting the results of this process. This agreement is known as the Berlin Mandate. The results of work done in terms of the Berlin Mandate were adopted in the form of the Kyoto Protocol in December 1997.

The Kyoto Protocol is a legal instrument that is separate from, but related to the Convention. Its purpose is to strengthen some of the broad commitments for Annex I countries that are not set out in the Convention. The main obligations contained in the Protocol are:

• Parties listed in Annex I (developed countries) are committed to quantified emission limitation and reduction. This means that they are obliged to ensure that their greenhouse gas emissions (namely carbon dioxide, methane, nitrous oxide, hydrofluorocarbons, perfluorocarbons and sulphur hexafluoride), do not exceed the amounts assigned to them with a view to reducing overall emissions by five percent below 1990 levels in the period 2008 to 2012. They have to show demonstrable progress by 2005. Further commitments for the period beyond 2012 will be established. This commitment may be undertaken individually or jointly and Parties may participate in emissions trading. However, any agreements on joint implementation must be submitted to the Secretariat for the information of all Parties. Under the Kyoto Protocol, the Annex I Parties are obliged to undertake certain activities such as -

• implement policies on climate change, or further elaborate their policies;

• enhance energy efficiency;

• limit and/ or reduce emissions in the waste and transport sectors;

• protect sinks for greenhouse gases;

• phase out market instruments that are counter productive to the aims of the Protocol (such as certain subsidies); and

• promote sustainable forms of agriculture and relevant research.

These activities must be undertaken in such a way that potentially adverse effects on, amongst other things, international trade, society, the environment and economies, especially in developing countries, are minimised.

• The Protocol also reaffirms the commitments set out in the Convention for all Parties. In particular, developing countries are urged to formulate programmes to improve the quality of their data on greenhouse gas emissions and the models they use for predicting climate change impacts. The Protocol also broadens the commitments of Parties by stipulating that all Parties should formulate, implement, publish and update national and regional programmes. These programmes should be focused on the energy, transport, industry, agriculture, forestry and waste management sectors.

• Provision for a Clean Development Mechanism has been established. The purpose of this mechanism is to assist developing countries to achieve the aims of the Convention and sustainable development as well as assisting Annex I countries in meeting their emission limitation and reduction commitments.

The Kyoto Protocol will only come into force when fifty five countries, representing fifty five percent of the world’s emissions, ratify the Protocol. South Africa must decide whether to ratify the Protocol or not.

An approach to environmental management which recognizes sustainable development as an ultimate objective allows climate change issues to be considered within the context of developmental needs. The White Paper on Environmental Management Policy in South Africa provides an overall framework to achieve the vision of a society in harmony with its environment. This environmental policy seeks "to unite the people of South Africa in working towards a society where all people have sufficient food, clean air and water, decent homes and green spaces in their neighbourhoods, enabling them to live in spiritual, cultural and physical harmony with their natural surroundings." This environmental management policy further recognizes that developmental policies in all sectors that do not address environmental concerns cannot claim to be sustainable. Effective integration of environmental concerns into the Growth Employment and Redistribution strategy and the Reconstruction and Development Programme will bring lasting benefits to all South Africans.

In order to successfully address some specific areas like pollution and waste management, biodiversity and coastal zone management, separate subordinate policies are required, which provide more detailed approaches. As is clear from Chapter 2, climate change policy needs to take into account the impact of climate change on water resources, human and animal health, agriculture, forestry and the coastal zone. South Africa's vulnerability to climate change in these sectors needs to be recognized in Climate Change policy. At the same time ways to alleviate the potential impact of climate change, like emission reduction, need to be dealt with in a holistic way within the overall policy of integrated pollution and waste management. The draft White Paper on this subject, which is soon to be published, adopts a pro-active approach to pollution and waste management.

The sectoral policies like the Energy Policy and the Minerals Policy which deal with sectors which have an impact on South Africa's overall greenhouse gas emissions need to take into account the potential impact of climate change policy in their approach. The draft on energy policy which has recently been released reaffirms that some of the South African energy supplies will continue to be based mainly on coal, with natural gas as a supplement. Noting that South Africa has ratified the Convention as a non-Annex I country, it promotes no regrets energy policies which it defines as those which decrease and minimize environmental impact with cost effectiveness and positive cash flow. The policy includes a broadly positive approach to joint implementation. Although the Green Paper on Minerals Policy makes no specific mention of the mutual dependence of climate change policy and policies regulating mining coal, in particular it acknowledges the environmental responsibilities of the mining industry.

Montreal Protocol

South Africa has already successfully implemented its obligations in terms of the Montreal Protocol which aims at controlling emissions into the atmosphere of substances harmful to the ozone layer.

A White Paper has been published (Government Gazette 18163, 28 July 1997), partly in response to South Africa’s ratification of the Convention on Biodiversity. It commits the government, among other things, to ‘...ensuring that essential ecosystem services and the biological resources required to meet human needs are protected and maintained.’ One of its six goals is to promote the conservation and sustainable use of biodiversity at the international level, where it specifically mentions the Framework Convention on Climate Change as an agreement relevant to the conservation of biodiversity.

Desertification, defined as land degradation in arid and semi-arid areas, can both contribute to climate change and be a result of it. This linkage is recognised in both the preamble and Article 4 of the Framework Convention on Climate Change, and in the preamble to the Convention on Desertification, which South Africa ratified in September 1997. A National Action Programme for the prevention of desertification in South Africa is currently being drafted. A coordinating group has been proposed to deal with the links between the three ‘Sustainable Development’ Conventions (Climate Change, Biodiversity and Desertification) which flowed from the Earth Summit in Rio de Janeiro in 1992.

In selecting policy options, it makes sense to first follow those options whose outcome would be beneficial regardless of the degree of climate change which occurs, or the direction which international treaties take. These are termed ‘no regrets’ policies, and typically have benefits which exceed their costs. Nevertheless, they are often not applied because there is a high initial cost to individuals or industries, although the long term benefits to society as a whole may be clear. The next set of options are those where the costs to the nation are close to, or slightly greater than, the benefits to the nation, but there are clear global benefits. Here there are mechanisms to use international funding sources to decrease the national costs, making a global and local benefit possible.

National environmental policy sets a priority in choosing options: National interests generally over-rule regional interests, which in turn over-rule global interests. In all cases the costs and benefits must be viewed holistically, and in the long term (in other words, all the direct and indirect costs and benefits of an option are included, from ‘cradle to grave’). Climate change policies must not conflict with existing major national policies, but should rather support them, and should recognise development priorities such as housing, water provision, electrification, environmental sustainability, job creation and equity. Finally, policies must take into account the availability of funds and skills to implement them.

As in most countries, the energy sector is the largest single source of greenhouse gases in South Africa, accounting for about half of the total. It follows that energy policy and climate change policy are highly connected. Human development needs energy, but it is possible to have development without an excessive increase in energy use.

The availability of low-cost energy is a big national advantage in promoting economic growth. Imposing additional costs on the energy sector, for instance a tax to curb the use of fossil fuels, would reduce the competitiveness of South African enterprises and increase the cost of living. On the other hand, the environmental costs resulting from the use of energy should as far as is practical be built into the price of energy to reduce environmental abuse, which ultimately becomes a cost borne by society, and especially the poor.

South Africa currently has relatively cheap electricity and coal. This advantage could become greater if our major international competitors are required to use more expensive energy sources which emit less greenhouse gases. There is also an opportunity for South Africa to benefit by developing advanced and efficient technologies for using its high ash, low sulphur coal, and for exporting its technologies for turning coal into petrochemicals and generating power using very little water. The relatively low efficiency of some parts of the energy sector provides an opportunity for significant efficiency gains at low cost, or in some cases, for a profit in the long term.

The Kyoto Protocol added sulphur hexafluoride, a gas used in switchgear in the energy sector, to the list of gases to be controlled. South Africa, as a non-Annex I country, does not have to control its use of the gas, but it may become unavailable in the future as the Annex I countries phase it out.

When South Africa is either obliged to reduce greenhouse gas emissions, or is able to enter into joint implementation agreements, or decides to reduce greenhouse gas emissions pro-actively, there are many options which could be applied to mitigate greenhouse gas emissions from the energy sector.

The policy responses to these threats and opportunities could include the following:

• Integrated energy planning at the national level, to provide the best overall mix of energy sources including renewable energy sources such as hydroelectric power, wind power, solar power and biomass, and non-greenhouse emitting energy sources such as nuclear power. The likely need to reduce greenhouse gas emissions some time in the future must be one consideration among the many in determining this mix.

• Increased generation and transmission efficiency, and more use of hydroelectric power, by developing the southern African power pool.

• Sustainable use of biomass fuels in rural areas, including activities to prevent and reverse the loss of trees.

• Fuel switching to fuels which release less greenhouse gas per unit of useful energy delivered. This could include greater use of natural gas and liquid petroleum gas as an industrial and domestic energy source in place of coal and electricity, provided that leaks are strictly controlled and safety issues are addressed.

• Electrification, where it replaces less emission-efficient energy sources, or where the benefits to human health and development outweigh the net increase greenhouse gas emissions.

• Use of highly-efficient ‘clean coal’ or gas-based technology, such as Integrated Combined Cycle generation and fuel cells, in future electricity generation stations.

• Management of the demand for energy (‘demand side management’) so that the supply can be more efficiently provided, for instance by technologies and pricing policies which reduce the peaks in electricity demand.

• Programmes to promote energy efficiency in homes, businesses and industry.

• Accessing international funds which allow initially more expensive, but overall less polluting energy options to be taken (see incremental costs and the Global Environmental Facility in the glossary).

• Entering into agreements with countries which are required to reduce their greenhouse gas emissions to have some of that reduction take place in South Africa (see joint implementation in the glossary), when and if such schemes become possible.

The transport sector (cars, trucks, buses, trains and domestic airlines) account for about a tenth of South Africa’s greenhouse gas emissions. The emissions from international airlines and ships refueled in South Africa are not counted in the national emission budget. The large distances and high altitudes in South Africa, combined with the distant separation of workers’ homes from their place of work resulting from apartheid planning, contribute to higher transport sector emissions in South Africa, while the relatively good road and rail network help to keep them down. The transport infrastructure is vulnerable to future climate change, for instance if flooding washes road and rail bridges away.

Rising vehicle emission standards and fuel costs in developed countries as they try to meet their Kyoto Protocol targets may indirectly cause the cost of vehicles and parts to increase in South Africa, as we are forced to keep pace with the technology. Since transport costs are a large part of the cost of production and cost of living in South Africa, and transport is a major source of noxious pollutants such as hydrocarbons, carbon monoxide and nitric oxide, there are good reasons other than climate change to increase energy-efficiency and reduce the emissions of the transport sector.

The options for reducing emissions while maintaining the same level of service include the development and wider use of improved public transport systems; increased use of rail rather than road or air for inter-city cargo transport; and measures to improve the efficiency of vehicles. In the longer term, better spatial development and road planning will help to reduce commuting distance and prevent energy-wasting traffic jams. ‘Hypercars’ (vehicles with fuel consumption many times lower than present cars) are technically feasible, and are predicted to make up a large fraction of vehicle sales within a decade or two. This offers an opportunity for the South African motor industry to be involved in the development of a major global product.

The phasing out of chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs) and sodium hexafluoride (SF₆ ) presents a challenge to industries with equipment or processes dependent on these chemicals. Increases in energy costs in developed countries as a result of applying the Convention will be passed on to the consumer, raising the cost of imported goods. Increase in the cost of energy in South Africa will reduce the profitability of local industries. Conversely, a low energy cost will attract industrial investment from developed countries.

The policy responses to these threats and opportunities should include partnerships between government and industry aimed at accelerating the trend towards decreased energy intensity of products through better design, manufacturing processes, recycling and waste reduction. Specific actions could include support for research and technology demonstration projects and the promotion of energy-efficiency programmes and standards in industry. Adding more economic value to exported natural resources, through manufacturing, helps to make them less sensitive to fluctuations in energy costs, provided the manufacturing processes are not unduly energy intensive, and we can undertake them competitively.

The climatic threats to the forestry sector lie in reduced water availability (either through less rainfall, or higher evaporation), and in the competition for land in the high rainfall areas with subtropical crops which were previously excluded by frost. The opportunities lie in taking advantage of increased water use efficiency due to higher carbon dioxide in the atmosphere, the sale of carbon sequestered in South African plantations to countries which need to reduce their net carbon dioxide emissions, and the development of an industrial energy sector partly based on biomass fuels.

Policy response options include the negotiation of joint implementation agreements within which carbon credits can be traded with other countries; the support of research into heat-tolerant tree varieties; the adaptation of the Afforestation Permit System and the proposed new Water Law to take into account climate changes and rising carbon dioxide; and the possibility of switching from forestry into more profitable land uses, such as subtropical fruits.

The main climatic threats to crop agriculture are increased drought and the spread of pests and diseases. The reduction in frost extent and severity provides an opportunity to expand the cultivation of tropical species. Pastoralism is threatened by a reduction in the quality (protein content) of rangelands, spread of certain livestock diseases, and in the hottest parts of the country, the increased occurrence of heat stress in cattle. On the positive side, there will be fewer livestock deaths due to cold episodes.

The policy responses should include maintaining a vigorous agricultural research community which is able to identify emerging problems in time to develop adaptive solutions; and not attempting to maintain the current geographical distribution of agricultural practices through subsidies when the climate becomes unsuitable. ‘No regrets’ mitigation options include promoting, through education, demonstration and the removal of entry-cost barriers, actions such as the use of protein supplements for livestock grazing on poor veld, which leads to both higher animal production and reduced methane emissions. Decreasing of the stocking rate and promoting a more productive herd composition would also reduce methane emissions. Reduced-tillage crop agriculture can save energy while building up soil carbon and reducing soil erosion. Some agricultural wastes (such as manure from feedlots or piggeries) can be turned into useful biogas energy instead of methane emissions.

Despite the relatively low cost of energy in South Africa, the large amount of energy needed for deep mining and mineral beneficiation, coupled with the current very low mineral prices, give the mining industry an incentive to improve energy use efficiency independently of any climate change considerations. Climate change developments pose two main threats to the sector. Coal mines face the prospect of a reduced international demand for coal, and a decreasing rate of growth in local demand as energy use efficiency increases. The CFCs which some mines use for refrigeration will be phased out. Substitutes, and modifying the equipment to use them, imposes a cost. Opportunities are offered by the possibility of using coal-bed methane as an energy source, and in cost reductions in the sector through more efficient energy use.

The policy options should focus on anticipating changes in the coal market, and adapting accordingly. An increased research and investment emphasis on coal beneficiation as a chemical feedstock rather than as a fuel could provide substitute demand with lower emissions. Energy efficiency within the mining sector can be promoted by research and technology demonstrations. Actions to prevent spontaneous combustion in waste coal dumps (such as setting and enforcing design standards and requiring the rehabilitation of old dumps) will reduce air and water pollution, and greenhouse gas emissions. Research into ways to use low-quality and small-size coal, thus reducing the amount dumped, will reduce methane emissions, the risk of fires, water pollution and the area of land occupied by dumps.

We, and all the other species on earth, are dependent on natural and agricultural ecosystems to supply us with air, water, food and shelter. While ecosystems have some tolerance to changes in their environment, they also have limits beyond which they will not continue to exist in their current form. This is what the convention means by ‘keeping climate change below dangerous levels’. The problem is that those limits are not well known. In the event of a catastrophic change in the global ecosystem (for instance, if the circulation in the oceans changed dramatically, as has happened during prehistoric climate changes) the economic and human consequences would be extreme, and all sectors would be affected. What is more likely is a series of small changes, due to climate change and a variety of other stresses which humans are placing on the world, leading to a gradually changing state of the environment. Developed countries have the wealth and know-how to anticipate, prevent, repair or adapt to changes in ecosystems. It is much harder for developing countries to do so.

The policy responses should include support for monitoring of climate change in South Africa and the factors that cause and respond to it, and for research aimed at anticipating ecological changes, predicting their location and developing adaptive strategies. Science and Technology policies should ensure that South Africa has good access to international research and development in this field. The South African position in Convention negotiations must balance the desire not to damage the South African economy or rate of development with the need to keep the global and local environment tolerable for all living things, within the country’s overall environmental management policy, which has sustainable development as overall goal.

The poor quality of air in towns and cities is a pressing environmental issue in South Africa. It affects especially the poor and unemployed, but also the health of workers and increases the costs of industrial processes. Air quality is related to climate change in several ways. Firstly, a reduction in fossil fuel use not only reduces greenhouse gas emissions, but also reduces the emissions of toxic pollutants such as sulphur dioxide and smoke particles. Secondly, moving the location of the fuel burning from inside the town (and especially from inside the home) to a power station where some of the dangerous substances can be removed or emitted far above the ground level will result in large quality of life improvements, even if the greenhouse gas emissions increase slightly as a result. In many cases, where efficient electricity generation replaces inefficient coal-burning stoves, the net greenhouse gas emissions will also decrease. Mechanisms should be introduced to encourage the use of electricity rather than coal burning stoves for cooking. Thirdly, if the cost of cleaner forms of energy rises due to ‘greenhouse’ taxes applied to electricity generators or petrochemical companies, the poor will burn more coal, leading to increased urban pollution.

Policy priority should be given to human health and the provision of basic needs, such as clean air, over the reduction in climate change, while recognising that climate change can lead to human health problems of its own, including the possibility of more atmospheric dust under a more arid climate and the spread of insect-born diseases. Energy policy should encourage people to move up the ‘energy ladder’ to cleaner and more efficient types of energy. Transport policy should promote public transport and the paving of urban roads (thus simultaneously reducing dust, maintenance and gas emissions).

Most greenhouse gases, except tropospheric ozone, are not ‘air pollutants’ in the normally-accepted sense of the word. They are non-toxic to people, plants and animals, even at their higher-than-historical levels. Nevertheless, there are advantages to integrating climate change policy and pollution policy. Measures to reduce greenhouse gases generally reduce other, more toxic, pollutants such as sulphur dioxide as well. On the other hand, measures to reduce sulphur dioxide, for instance by flue-gas desulphurisation, decrease the efficiency (and thus increase the greenhouse gas emissions) of power stations. It makes sense to combine the mechanisms for collecting information about pollution emissions, needed for IPC, with those for collecting greenhouse gas emission data needed for the Convention.

The policy response should be to include the greenhouse gases listed in the Convention and Kyoto Protocol (and the ozone depleting gases in the Montreal Protocol) in the reporting requirements in the future Integrated Pollution Control regulations, and establishing a single clearing-house for data relating to conventions and national and provincial pollution control efforts.

Urban organic waste (the paper, vegetable matter and sewage which makes up about half of the waste produced in towns and cities) and waste from cattle feedlots, piggeries, chicken farms and abattoirs presents both a disposal problem, and a significant source of methane, a greenhouse gas. The methane can be trapped, and used as an energy source. When methane is burned carbon dioxide is produced, which is a less-powerful greenhouse gas. Using the methane prevents it from being emitted, and also saves some fossil fuel. Similarly, recycling and waste minimisation in the commercial and manufacturing sectors both reduce a disposal problem, and also save energy, leading to a reduction in greenhouse gas emissions.

Policy options could include setting and enforcing urban landfill design standards which allow methane to be extracted, and actions to promote the capture and use of landfill methane. Examples are the support of demonstration projects and the use of methane in local government vehicles. Policies which promote recycling are good for reducing climate change too.

In a democracy, climate change policy is not the policy of the government but of the people. It can only be as informed as they are, and receive the priority which they give it. The amount and type of energy used in a society depends a great deal on the perceptions, attitudes and knowledge of its people. For instance, there is a tenfold difference in per capita energy use among developed nations, with little accompanying difference in the quality of life which the people enjoy. Public education regarding the advantages and methods of energy saving and the potential threats and opportunities provided by climate change must be a policy priority. Public education and information must include information to companies (especially small enterprises, which may not have the resources to do research on their own).

Dissemination of information about greenhouse gas emissions is an effective way to encourage emitters to reduce their emissions.

Sectors which are dependent on the use or import of products which require a lot of energy or fossil fuel to manufacture are more sensitive to changes in the energy or fuel price than those that do not. In the short term, a rise in the cost of energy in developed countries relative to South Africa due to the enforcement of the Convention will result in cost increases for importers, and economic opportunities for exporters. It will be tempting to exploit this situation by encouraging energy-intensive industries to come here. This strategy may backfire in the longer term, when developed countries have adapted less energy-intensive and thus more competitive technologies, leaving us saddled with their older technologies. It would also lead to increased levels of air and water pollution in South Africa unless strict emission standards are applied.

The policy response should be to consider the longer term implications of both climate change, and international responses to the perceived threat of climate change, when promoting particular economic sectors, and especially when providing incentives for energy-intensive industries.

The atmosphere mixes across national boundaries. Since it is always cheaper to reduce emissions in some countries than others, it is possible to get the greatest global reductions at the lowest global price by allowing a country which has committed itself to reducing emissions to do so by helping to reduce emissions in another country, usually by paying them to do so or by providing them with the necessary technology on favourable terms. This is called joint implementation (JI).

The Kyoto Protocol paves the way for Annex I countries to buy and sell emission credits between themselves - for instance, if one of them has reduced emissions below its target, it can sell this difference to a country which is exceeding its target. A group of counties can also agree to pool their emission allowances in one ‘bubble’. Despite the absence of a clear and binding legal framework, emissions trading and joint implementation are proceeding between Annex I and non-Annex I Parties as well as between Annex I Parties.

Emissions trading and JI could be to the advantage of South Africa, directly through providing a source of income and technology, and indirectly by reducing the cost of mitigation for our important trading partners. Despite the theoretical efficiency and flexibility of such a system, there are a number of concerns and drawbacks.

• There is a perceived unfairness in allowing some nations (usually the rich ones) to continue to have high emissions, while others (usually the poorer, less developed ones) reduce emissions on their behalf.

• There are a number of practical problems in ensuring that the claimed emission reduction has in fact occurred, and would not have occurred anyway.

• The JI agreements are often brokered or entered into by enterprises for purposes of making a private profit, but it is the country as a whole which has signed the Convention. Thus the country is ultimately responsible for whatever promises may have been made by a private enterprise operating within its boundaries.

• There is a worry that in allocating the tradeable quotas of greenhouse gases, a new form of global currency is created, with the high-emitting, already-wealthy developed world getting most of it.

• There is a concern in developing countries that selling the cheapest mitigation options now will leave the next generation with only expensive options when they need to achieve mitigation themselves.

• If Annex I Parties are permitted to trade emissions with non-Annex I countries (which have not committed themselves to an emission limit) the result could simply be a leakage of emissions from one part of the world to another, with no net reduction.

The details of emission trading have yet to be formalised in international treaties. South Africa must develop policy positions on these details. The policy response should be to commission studies, perhaps in conjunction with other countries with similar interests, in order to understand all the aspects of the issue better. One way of exploring the implications would be to participate in the pilot, non-binding phase, known as ‘activities implemented jointly’ (AIJ). The policy issues which need to be addressed urgently include what sort of projects should qualify, by what official mechanism should they be approved and monitored, and to whom should the benefits accrue?

Science has played a pivotal role in bringing the issue of climate change to world attention, and will continue to be crucial in the search for solutions. For this reason, the Convention and the Kyoto Protocol both commit Parties to support research and monitoring in the field of climate change. South African scientists have taken a leading role, given the small size of the country, in the international research programmes in this field. On the other hand, they have had very little role within the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change, which assesses the research and interprets it for climate change policymaking purposes, because before 1994 this body was closed to South Africans. South Africa has an important contribution to make there, as one of the few developing countries with a strong research sector.

South Africa maintains a Global Atmosphere Watch monitoring station at Cape Point, where the changing composition of the atmosphere is measured with great precision. This is a vital station in the global network due to its location. The network of climate monitoring stations in South Africa is the best in Africa. The research and monitoring activities are threatened in a science funding environment which emphasises short term, product-oriented science.

The policy response should include financial support from central government for scientists to be involved in international global change research programmes and the IPCC, and a long-term commitment to maintain an optimised set of monitoring measurements. Government should leverage its investment in climate change adaptation and mitigation research by forming partnerships with private enterprises in the affected economic sectors, as envisaged in the White Paper on Science and Technology.

Previous chapters have outlined what climate change is, what international law says about climate change and what the significant issues are pertaining to climate change. However, the activities that give rise to climate change and the obligations to be carried out in terms of the Convention, must largely take place within the framework of national laws and institutions. South Africa must therefore establish a policy that will address both our contribution to climate change and how we will manage and give effect to our obligations as a Party to the Convention. In developing a policy on governance for climate change, three aspects need to be addressed, namely, South Africa’s views on key policy issues implicit to the Convention; the institutional arrangements required to administer the Convention; and the regulatory approach that will give effect to current commitments.

The government’s position on certain key political issues such as our status as a developing country, equity, international and regional relationships, participation and education and information relating to climate change must be formulated to -

• interpret and give effect to existing commitments nationally in a consistent way;

• guide our approach in future negotiations and the development of future protocols and methodologies to give effect to our obligations in terms of the Convention and protocols (if ratified); and

• set the context within which the debate on the ratification of the Kyoto Protocol takes place.

In determining South Africa’s approach to these issues the following factors should be taken into account:

• The potential impact of mitigation options on the environment, socio-economic issues and sectors such as mining, agriculture and forestry.

• Regional variation in the causes and effects of climate change.

• Vulnerability to the consequences of climate change.

• The global nature of climate change.

These issues are considered in more detail below.

South Africa is classified as a developing country in terms of the Convention and is not obliged to adhere to the more demanding commitments placed on developed countries, listed in Annex I to the Convention. However, related South African policies such as the policy on Integrated Pollution and Waste Management, place an emphasis on cleaner technology and production, and a shift to sustainable development. This accordingly supports a proactive approach in formulating a climate change policy.

In addition, a proactive approach including early mitigation action, adaptation plans and improvement of knowledge may have some advantages, including -

• helping to reduce the global problem proactively;

• giving us more time to prepare for meeting greenhouse gas reduction targets when they are imposed on developing countries; and

• allowing us to trade the gains profitably with Annex I countries.

Equity can be viewed in several ways:

• ·Between the countries of the world generally and between the developed and developing countries specifically (globally).

• Between South Africa and its neighbours (regionally).

• Between South African citizens.

• Between current and future generations (intergenerationally).

The Bill of Rights establishes a platform for equity between citizens. Intergenerational equity is incorporated as an environmental right in the Constitution. In order to give effect to the Constitution, the climate change policy must not aggravate existing disparities such as those that occur between countries, or within regions or parts of society. For instance, because countries differ greatly in vulnerability to climate change, wealth, capacity, resource richness and other factors, the costs of climate change impacts, adaptation and mitigation will be borne inequitably unless there is a mechanism for redistributing these costs.

International and Regional Relationships

Government demonstrated its recognition of the fact that climate change is a global issue that requires global action by ratifying the Convention. This commitment is reflected in South Africa’s participation in the international meetings. International and regional relations are important for -

• understanding the views of international and regional partners and structuring our approach appropriately. For example, South Africa is part of SADC and must consider its approach within the context of relations with its SADC partners;

• understanding international implementation strategies to address climate change, their impact and potential appropriateness for South Africa; and

• assessing the possibility of entering into partnerships to assist South Africa in meeting its commitments through, for example, financial aid and transfer of technology.

The National Environmental Management Policy sets out South Africa’s relationship with the international community in the following order:

1. South African concerns.

2. SADC concerns.

3. The Organisation of African Unity, Africa Group and G-77 concerns.

4. Global concerns.

The Convention emphasises the need to participate as widely as possible on climate change issues. This is in accordance with South African environmental policies such as CONNEPP, the National Environmental Management Policy and Integrated Pollution and Waste Management. Participation and education will:

• Enable people to participate in climate change decision making effectively.

• Contribute to the ability of civil society to exercise choices over matters that affect climate change, such as consumer power.

• Ultimately assist government in meeting its commitments through social partnerships and co-operation.

• Reduce negative economic impacts that may occur in meeting commitments, such as retraining in the face of potential retrenchments.

• Increase awareness of the need to develop strategies to alleviate the potentially adverse impacts of climate change, such as the risk of flood, drought and the spread of disease, both locally and regionally.

The Convention, Agenda 21, the South African Constitution and environmental policies such as the National Environmental Management Policy, recognise access to information as being fundamental to effective participation and responsible management. Access to information must be developed to ensure that -

• civil society can participate effectively in climate change processes;

• policy is formulated on the basis of relevant information rather than speculation; and

• compliance with the Convention can be monitored.

In order to achieve this, government must establish monitoring systems and ensure access to information.

Monitoring and Information Collection Systems

Adequate monitoring and information collection systems to collect the information need to be established. These systems are necessary to give effect to our obligations, including the requirement to report to the Conference of the Parties, in terms of the Convention. The systems will provide for the collection of information such as -

• gas emissions;

• weather patterns;

• clean production technology; and

• research.

This information will also be used to assess the progress that South Africa has made in meeting its obligations in terms of the Convention and will inform discussions regarding South African needs, positions and responses to international initiatives.

By establishing such a system, Government will ensure that the methodology for collecting the information and databases used by different government departments will be consistent and standardised to ensure that the data can be easily collated and consolidated, and reducing the cost of meeting Convention commitments in the future.

Access to information

To ensure accessibility and wide dissemination of information as well as facilitating the collection of data, government can undertake the following activities:

• Streamline and incorporate information, where possible, with other related initiatives such as the inventories that will be established under the Integrated Pollution and Waste Management Policy.

• Feed relevant information, such as statistics on greenhouse gas emissions, into other processes, for example the State of Environment Report.

• Regularly publish and update information and statistics collected through the monitoring systems and disseminate this information on request.

• Regularly publish and update information regarding developments of the Convention and related protocols.

• Ensure that information is in a usable form and that it is in a readily understandable form to those without a technical background.

• Investigate the establishment of a system for the collection of data that may be required to meet development needs, such as the development of technology to reduce emissions.

Government is responsible for giving effect to the provisions of the Convention. The provisions of the Conventions have impacts on socio economic policies such as trade and sectoral policies and activities, such as those sectors identified in the Kyoto Protocol.

These activities fall within the responsibility of many different government departments at all levels of government. At national level, these departments include the Department of Environmental Affairs and Tourism, Department of Water Affairs and Forestry, Department of Transport, Department of Minerals and Energy, Department of Trade and Industry, Department of Health and the Department of Labour. Certain areas of governance have also been designated as exclusive or concurrent provincial competencies and local government functions in terms of the Constitution. These areas include environment, pollution control, nature conservation, public transport, health, trade, traffic, beaches and solid refuse disposal.

From the above, it is clear that these departments will all play a role in both implementing climate change policy, and providing information regarding the impact on the sector or area for which they are responsible. To avoid fragmented administration of the Convention, the government has designated the Department of Environmental Affairs and Tourism to be the lead department responsible for co-ordinating the implementation of South Africa’s commitments in terms of the Convention and other related matters.

In its role as lead agent, the Department of Environmental Affairs and Tourism be will be responsible for:

• Overall co-ordination of the implementation of the Convention. In terms of this function, the department will co-ordinate -

• the gathering of information for the purposes of compiling and updating the national inventory, formulating programmes to mitigate climate change, monitoring of emissions, the dissemination of information and compiling the report to the Conference of the Parties; and

• initiatives and steps to promote the transfer of technology, sustainable management, adaptation methods, education, training and research.

• Providing a focal point for climate change related matters.

• Participating in international climate change proceedings such as the Conference of the Parties and meetings of other institutional bodies.

• The dissemination of information related to climate change.

• Ensuring that climate change considerations are incorporated in the sectoral policies of other government departments.

• · Undertaking education, training, awareness raising and capacity building.

• · Ensuring public participation in climate change processes.

Climate change and the policies drafted to mitigate it will have an effect on all components of civil society, particularly women and those who are economically disadvantaged. Their participation is recognised as being necessary in terms of both the Convention and national policy. The government must form strong social partnerships with stakeholders.

Programmes and mechanisms to increase both awareness and to ensure the effective participation of stakeholders need to be established. The following organised sectors have a particular role to play:

• Labour

• Community based organisations

• Non-governmental organisations

• Business and industry.

Government can support the role of civil society as social partners with government through -

• capacity building;

• participation in climate change processes;

• facilitation of full access to information;

• facilitation of access to influencing the decisions of government;

• participation in voluntary agreements;

• encouragement of voluntary initiatives;

• facilitation of the retraining of labour where appropriate, involvement of their participation in monitoring; and

• provision of channels to address grievances.

A co-ordination mechanism for climate change activities is important because -

• decisions must take into account all relevant considerations and implications;

• duplication of activities must be avoided, thereby making use of the government’s capacity most effectively; and

• a system must be put in place to avoid delays in responding to international issues.

In carrying out our climate change commitments, government shall seek to avoid duplication of effort. It will, wherever possible, integrate climate change activities into existing activities. For example, the greenhouse gas inventory process can be merged with the inventory being developed in terms of the National Waste Management Strategy, the Montreal Protocol process and the reporting requirements in terms of the Atmospheric Pollution Prevention Act.

Co-ordination can occur at two levels. The first type of co-ordination is between officials in different government departments with regards to administrative activities. This will be undertaken by the Department of Environmental Affairs and Tourism, as lead agent, through Interdepartmental Task Groups.

The second type of co-ordination pertains to strategic input. To achieve this, the Minister of Environmental Affairs and Tourism has established a committee to advise him. The advisory committee, known as the National Committee on Climate Change (NCCC) is comprised of representatives of relevant government departments as well as members representing the sectors of civil society. The existing National Committee on Climate Change needs to be reconstituted to ensure appropriate representativity and expertise.

The functions of the reconstituted advisory committee will be to advise on -

• positions for international meetings, through preparing briefing papers;

• legislation that may be required to give effect to the Convention;

• the allocation of international donor funding designated for climate change mitigation;

• the implementation of the Convention;

• the ratification and subsequent implementation of Protocols;

• the impact of climate change considerations on sustainable development;

• joint implementation; and

• the climate change impacts on other government legislation and policies.

There are many policy instruments that could be used to implement the Convention commitments. The list set out below is not exhaustive, but provides a range of options that could be used. It is intended that those tools that best give effect to the aims of the Convention and the environmental right contained in the Constitution should be adopted. Considerations in choosing these options include accessibility to the public, the influence on emission levels, consistency with national policies and sustainable development.

Command and Control

Traditional command and control measures involve direct regulation through mechanisms such as legislated requirements and corresponding sanctions for non compliance, permits subject to conditions and standards. These measures are normally used where the problem, or potential problem, is very serious.

Economic Instruments

Economic instruments are used to encourage a change in behaviour by all sectors of society. In the context of implementing climate change, economic instruments can be used punitively or as an incentive. Examples of economic instruments include:

• Subsidies: Subsidies can be used either punitively or as an incentive. For example, where subsidies are provided in respect of activities that emit substantial quantities of greenhouse gases, the elimination of such subsidies would be a punitive measure. Conversely, subsidies may be given to activities to limit the emission of greenhouse gases.

• Charges: Charges may be levied in respect of greenhouse gas emissions.

• Tradeable permits: Under this system, the total amount of emissions for the country is established and enterprises wishing to undertake an activity that would involve emissions of greenhouse gases would have to obtain, or buy, a permit. The effectiveness of this instrument may be hampered by factors such as the degree of monitoring and enforcement required. This mechanism is applied internationally through the Kyoto Protocol.

Voluntary Programmes

Although voluntary programmes should not replace direct regulation, they may provide a complement to achieving the commitments in terms of the Convention. This can be achieved by creating a framework for voluntary programmes and negotiated agreements with industry that exceed minimum legislative standards, and/ or set specified stabilisation targets, and promote the involvement of labour, NGOs and communities in climate change activities, and/or implement pilot projects aimed at mitigation and adaptation.

Government should also assess the appropriateness of international methods and strategies used to meet climate change commitments, including the adaptation and mitigation measures set out in Chapters 5 and 6 such as -

• joint implementation;

• transfer of technology;

• promoting the development of increased use of renewable energy sources;

• promoting increased energy efficiency, including in the energy production, transport, household and agricultural sectors;

• promoting fuel switching to less carbon intensive fuels;

• adopting conservation measures to enhance greenhouse sinks and reservoirs;

• strategies to combat desertification;

• reduction of methane emissions through recovery and use;

• reduction of fluorocarbon emissions from refrigeration and air-conditioning equipment; and

• reduction of emissions of nitrous oxide.

This chapter outlines what activities government must undertake to ensure that South Africa’s commitments in terms of the Convention are fulfilled. Certain activities are already being undertaken in order to meet certain commitments, such as those on reporting.

In this regard, South Africa has initiated a National Country Study to collect information to be used as the basis of the National Report that will be submitted in terms of the Convention. There are three components to this study, namely:

• The collection and collation of information regarding greenhouse gas emissions.

• A consideration of mitigation and adaptation options.

• A study on South Africa’s vulnerability to climate change.

The information collected on greenhouse gas emissions will form the basis of a database or inventory of greenhouse gas emissions. The results of this inventory will be used to prioritise policy areas. This database must be continuously updated through the submission of data by emitters on a regular basis.

The National Country Study will also provide a preliminary evaluation on mitigation and adaptation options as well as vulnerability aspects of climate change. This information will be used in the development of vulnerability, mitigation and adaptation strategies for key sectors. These strategies will include:

• Capacity building and training of both civil society and government officials regarding impacts, the potential need for adaptation and the management of vulnerabilities.

• Co-operation with international agencies regarding matters such as strategy, financial assistance and transfer of technology.

• The implementation of voluntary agreements and monitoring requirements.

Once the policy is finalised, government will give effect to the institutional structures as set out in the policy, by establishing the determined mechanisms.

As a Party to the Convention South Africa will be introducing strategies to:

• Improve the understanding of the likely future climate changes in South Africa, the effects they will have on South Africa, and how South Africa can adapt to these changes.

• Implement the institutional arrangements and regulations identified as necessary by the policy process.

• Conduct an ongoing process of public information and education on climate change issues.

• Identify greenhouse gas emission mitigation opportunities, and implement those which are ‘no regrets’ options as soon as possible.

Chapters 5 and 6 introduce some of the policy options which can be considered. It is intended that the draft White Paper will provide a more concrete approach to policy options. Readers are urged to make recommendations on preferred policy options.

Adaptation. The actions needed to adjust to a changing climate.

Agenda 21. This is an international programme aimed at placing the world on a sustainable development path.

Annex I country. A developed country, as listed in annex one of the Convention. These countries are required to do much more under the Convention than developing (‘non Annex I’) countries such as South Africa.

Biodiversity. The number and variety of living things.

Chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs). A group of synthetic gases (not found in nature) which were discovered and manufactured this century. They have many industrial uses, including refrigerants, making the bubbles in foam plastics, and the gas that makes some spray cans work. They are very long-lived in the atmosphere, and therefore are able to diffuse up to the stratosphere, where they are involved in destroying the ozone layer. For this reason they are being phased out under the Montreal Protocol. They are also powerful greenhouse gases.

Conference of the Parties (COP). The meetings of the Parties to the Convention, held every two years, at which decisions are made regarding the implementation of the Convention.

CONNEPP. The Consultative National Environmental Policy Process.

Convention. A legal agreement between nations. In this document referring to the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (the UNFCCC).

Demand-side management. Actions to keep the demand for electricity as low and even as possible, while still providing the same level of energy-consuming services. An example is the use of efficient lights - they reduce the amount of electricity used but provide the same amount of light, with equal convenience.

Enhanced greenhouse effect. The additional absorption of solar radiation caused by the increased concentrations of greenhouse gases in the atmosphere due to human activities over the past two centuries. It is over and above the radiation absorbed by the atmosphere in pre-industrial times (the greenhouse effect), that is essential for life on earth.

Fossil Fuel. Coal, oil, and natural gas (and various forms of these, such as oil shales, methane clathrates and lignite). They are carbon-containing compounds formed when dead plants were buried many millions of years ago under sediments.

GEF. See Global Environmental Facility.

Global Environmental Facility (GEF). The main way which the Convention provides for developed countries to help pay for activities in less-developed countries which will lead to reductions in greenhouse gas emissions. It is a fund administered by the World Bank, in partnership with the United Nations Development Programme and the United Nations Environment Programme. It is also the interim funding mechanism for other environmental conventions.

Greenhouse gas. A gas which is transparent to short wavelength radiation from the sun, but absorbs the long wavelength radiation emitted from the earth, causing the earth’s surface to warm up. Examples are water vapour, carbon dioxide, methane, nitrous oxide, ozone and chlorofluorocarbons.

Greenhouse Effect. See Enhanced greenhouse effect.

Green Paper. Traditionally the first official document on the path to forming government policy. It outlines the thinking of government, without committing it to particular policies, and forms the basis for discussion with interested and affected groups.

Hydrofluorocarbons (HCFC). A group of synthetic gases used to replace chlorofluorocarbons. They are listed as greenhouse gases in the Kyoto Protocol, and will need to be included in future inventories.

Incremental costs. The difference in cost between two developments, the more expensive of which has lower greenhouse gas emissions, but otherwise has equal outcomes. In other words, the extra amount of money you need to spend to adopt a cleaner technology. The Convention promises that the Annex I countries will pay the full incremental costs of non-Annex I countries.

Joint implementation. An agreement between two nations in which they undertake an activity together to reduce greenhouse gas emissions, or increase a greenhouse gas sink. Typically, one is a developed nation listed in Annex I of the Convention, and the other is a developing country. The developed country pays for the developing country to take an action which reduces net emissions, and then claims all or part of the credit in its own greenhouse gas inventory.

Kyoto Protocol. An international agreement, related to but separate from the Climate Convention, which sets greenhouse gas emission limits for Annex I Parties to the convention.

Mitigation. The actions needed to reduce greenhouse gas emissions or increase greenhouse gas sinks.

Negative feedback. Occurs when an increase in A causes an increase in B, which then causes a decrease in A. It helps to slow down the rate of growth of the factors, and keeps the system in control.

No regrets. A policy which has climate change benefits, but is justified even if not required by climate change.

Parties. A Party to the Convention is a country that has ratified the Convention.

Perfluorocarbons. A gas produced during the smelting of aluminium. They are listed as greenhouse gases in the Kyoto Protocol, and will need to be included in future inventories.

Precautionary principle. The philosophy that when faced with a situation of high risk but great uncertainty, you should avoid continuing on that path, even if this costs you something. For instance, it is not known for certain whether large climate changes will occur, but if they did, the consequences would be severe. The nations of the world, through the Convention, are applying the precautionary principle.

Protocol. An international agreement, often related to a convention. It provides a way to adjust or add to the convention without renegotiating everything already agreed on in the convention.

Ratify. The process by which a government agrees to accept an international convention. A representative of the country first signs the convention, thereby indicating that it is considering the issue. South Africa became a signatory to the Climate Convention in 1993. Once the cabinet and parliament have agreed to be bound by the treaty, it is ratified by a declaration in the Government Gazette and a formal letter to the Convention secretariat. This took place on 29 August 1997. Between signing and ratifying, the country is an observer to the treaty, but not a member of the Conference of Parties, and cannot vote.

Sink. A process which removes greenhouse gases from the atmosphere. For instance, growing a tree where one did not previously exist provides a sink for carbon dioxide.

Source. A place or activity from which greenhouse gases are emitted. This can be a process (such as coal burning) or a location (cultivated fields).

Stratosphere. The upper layer in the atmosphere, above about 12 km altitude. This is much higher than even most airplanes fly. This is where the ozone layer is found.

Sulfur hexafluoride (SF₆). A gas used to insulate high-voltage switches and transformers, listed as a greenhouse gas in the Kyoto Protocol.

Troposphere. The layer of the atmosphere next to the earth’s surface, to a height of about 12 km. This is the air in which we breath and emit pollutants into.

White Paper. A statement of government policy, but without the force of law. Traditionally it is the second step in establishing policy, after the Green Paper, and leads to action such as laws, regulations and changes in institutions or budgets.

WMO. World Meteorological Organisation.

These readings should be available in a library near to you, or by writing to the publishers.

Climate Change 1995. Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change Second Assessment Report. volume 1: The science of climate change. (pp572) volume 2: Impacts, adaptations and mitigation of climate change. Cambridge University Press. (pp878) These are the authoritative scientific assessment reports on which international climate change policy is based. They should be available in university libraries. They are written in scientific language, but the decision-maker’s summaries are short and relatively easily understood.

Climate Change and Southern Africa: an exploration of some potential impacts and implications for the SADC region. Report produced for the World-wide Fund for Nature, Edited by M. Hulme. Climatic Research Unit, University of East Anglia, Norwich. 1996. ISBN 2-88085-193-9. A semi-scienitific report specifically for southern Africa, but with numerous errors. Covers predicted climate change and impacts on vegetation, nature reserves, runoff, agriculture, disease and animals.

Explaining climate change. World-wide Fund for Nature, 1250 24^th St NW, Washignton DC, USA. 1996. (24 pp) ISBN 1 85850 039 3. A report in simple language describing climate change and what its potential impacts are.

Global Climate Change and South Africa. Shackleton, LY, Lennon, SJ and Tosen, GR (eds). Environmental Scientific Association, Private Bag X40175, Cleveland 2022. A report originally prepared by the South African Interdepartmental Committee on Climate Change in 1993. Various other findings and reports have been added. The only report specifically for South Africa, but somewhat outdated now.

Regional impacts of climate change: an assessment of vulnerability. Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change. Cambridge University Press. 1998. The IPCC was requested by the Convention Conference of Parties to interpret its second assessment report in regional terms, to help individual countries understand what the impacts would be for them. This report is the result. It has a section on Africa.

South Africa and Climate Change. Newsletter produced by the South African National Climate Change Committee, South African Weather Bureau, Private Bag X097, Pretoria, 0001. The newsletter comes out about twice a year. It contains news about the activities of the NCCC and international developments.

Understanding climate change. Information Unit for Climate Change, UNEP, Box 356 1219 Chatelaine, Switzerland. 1995. A booklet written in very easily-understood terms, explaining climate change and the convention.

Comments on this document must be submitted by 25 September 1998 to the Climate Change Secretariat. Further information can be obtained from: